1. Semantics 1: Lexical Semantics Ling400

2. What is semantics? Semantics is the study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences.Semantics is the study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences.

3. Dictionary definitions Defining the meaning of a word in terms of other words (of the same language) is circular and does not answer the following question: What is meaning? How do we learn meaning?Defining the meaning of a word in terms of other words (of the same language) is circular and does not answer the following question: What is meaning? How do we learn meaning?

4. Two types of semantic theory Referential theoryReferential theory –The meaning of an expression (e.g. word) is its referent (i.e. what it refers to). Representational theoryRepresentational theory –The meaning of an expression (e.g. word) is its image, concept, mental representation, or a bundle of semantic features, etc. (not directly linked to the outside world)

5. The semantics of proper names The referential theory works best here.The referential theory works best here. Noam Chomsky meansNoam Chomsky means Seattle meansSeattle means

6. But sometimes, you have problems with this idea … The Morning star (Greek:The Morning star (Greek: ) means Phosphorous) means The evening star (Greek:The evening star (Greek: Hesperus) means Phosphorous is Phosphorous. [trivial] Phosphorous is Hesperus. [informative]

7. Frege’s conclusion We need to distinguish between reference (German: Bedeutung) and sense (German: Sinn) — something more abstract than reference.We need to distinguish between reference (German: Bedeutung) and sense (German: Sinn) — something more abstract than reference. The morning star and the evening star have the same reference but have different senses.The morning star and the evening star have the same reference but have different senses.

8. Count (Common) Nouns Let us assume that the meaning of a count noun is the collection of all things/persons that have the quality/property in question.Let us assume that the meaning of a count noun is the collection of all things/persons that have the quality/property in question. For example, cow meansFor example, cow means

9. Hyponymy dog means the collection ofdog means the collection of all dogs all dogs mammal means the collectionmammal means the collection of all mammals of all mammals X is a hyponym of Y = the meaning of X is contained in the meaning of YX is a hyponym of Y = the meaning of X is contained in the meaning of Y

10. Synonymy A is synonymous with B = the meaning of A is the same as the meaning of BA is synonymous with B = the meaning of A is the same as the meaning of B couch meanscouch means sofa meanssofa means

11. Antonymy 1 (gradable + complementary) Suppose that each adjective means “the collection of all things/persons that have the quality/property in question”Suppose that each adjective means “the collection of all things/persons that have the quality/property in question” happy then meanshappy then means unhappy meansunhappy means A and B are antonymous = The meanings of A and B do not overlap.A and B are antonymous = The meanings of A and B do not overlap.

12. Complementary vs. gradable antonyms Complementary (no grey areas)Complementary (no grey areas)married/unmarriedalive/dead Gradable (comparatives are possible; intermediate “areas” exist)Gradable (comparatives are possible; intermediate “areas” exist) easy/hard, old/young

13. Antonymy 2 (converses/relational opposites) Not all anonymous pairs can be explained in this manner.Not all anonymous pairs can be explained in this manner. parent vs. childparent vs. child teacher vs. studentteacher vs. student They are relational opposites.They are relational opposites. Informally: For any x and y, whenever x is A of y, y is B of x (and vice versa) = A and B are (relational) antonymsInformally: For any x and y, whenever x is A of y, y is B of x (and vice versa) = A and B are (relational) antonyms

14. Antonymy 3 (reverses) right/leftright/left Inside/outsideInside/outside put together/take apartput together/take apart ascent/descentascent/descent

15. Semantics of pronouns Pronouns such as he, him(self), she, her(self), etc. stand for other nouns (NPs, to be more accurate)Pronouns such as he, him(self), she, her(self), etc. stand for other nouns (NPs, to be more accurate) In some cases, a pronoun indicates the same object/person as another NP in the same sentence. In this case, these two expressions (the NP and the pronoun) are said to be co-referential.In some cases, a pronoun indicates the same object/person as another NP in the same sentence. In this case, these two expressions (the NP and the pronoun) are said to be co-referential.

16. Pronouns and coreferentiality Having the same “index” (subscripted letter) indicates “sameness” of some sort. Often this means co-reference.Having the same “index” (subscripted letter) indicates “sameness” of some sort. Often this means co-reference. John i said that he i was happy.John i said that he i was happy. *John i blames him i.*John i blames him i. John i blames himself i.John i blames himself i. John i blames him kJohn i blames him k *John i blames himself k.*John i blames himself k.

17. The use of pronouns Non-reflexive pronouns: I, you, he, she, theyNon-reflexive pronouns: I, you, he, she, they Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselvesReflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves Miss Jones invited ______ to the party.Miss Jones invited ______ to the party. Mary asked if John could excuse _____.Mary asked if John could excuse _____.

18. The use of pronouns Miss Marple invited ______ to the party.Miss Marple invited ______ to the party. –me, *myself, *I –her, herself, him, *himself –you, *yourself Mary asked if John could excuse _____.Mary asked if John could excuse _____. –me, *myself, *I –her, *herself, him, himself –you, *yourself

19. Reflexive pronouns do not always mean “co-reference” In some cases, reflexive pronouns are used when the “sameness” cannot be captured in terms of “co-reference”. Every boy likes himself. Every boy thinks that he is smart. (one of the two readings) Himself does not denote the same object as every boy.

20. Intersective adjectives The text calls this “pure intersection”: not a good term from the viewpoint of Set TheoryThe text calls this “pure intersection”: not a good term from the viewpoint of Set Theory Examples: color terms (blue, yellow, etc.) Adjectives such as nice arguably receive intersective interpretations at least in some cases (e.g. Mary is a nice person.)Examples: color terms (blue, yellow, etc.) Adjectives such as nice arguably receive intersective interpretations at least in some cases (e.g. Mary is a nice person.) Most adjectives are not really intersective.Most adjectives are not really intersective.

21. “subsective” adjectives The textbook uses the term “subsective”.The textbook uses the term “subsective”. Adjectives like big, small, competent, fast, etc. They take the meaning (a set) of a noun and yields its subset. So I would call them subset-yielding adjectives.Adjectives like big, small, competent, fast, etc. They take the meaning (a set) of a noun and yields its subset. So I would call them subset-yielding adjectives.

22. Intensional adjectives (part1) Our text uses two non-standard terms (non- intersection/anti-intersection). Formal semanticists use the term intensional adjective for both.Our text uses two non-standard terms (non- intersection/anti-intersection). Formal semanticists use the term intensional adjective for both. E.g. alleged (non-intersective), fake (anti- intersective), etc.E.g. alleged (non-intersective), fake (anti- intersective), etc. Definition: non-insersective (can include members of the original set) anti-intersective (must not include members of the original set)Definition: non-insersective (can include members of the original set) anti-intersective (must not include members of the original set)

23. Intensional adjectives (part 2) Intensional adjectives (semanticists’ term)Intensional adjectives (semanticists’ term) Their crucial characteristic: “Adj CN” and “CN” may not have anything in common: consider examples like fake gun, alleged criminal, prospective student.Their crucial characteristic: “Adj CN” and “CN” may not have anything in common: consider examples like fake gun, alleged criminal, prospective student.