1. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation and planetary orbits

2. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Announcements The first homework due Thursday (at the start of class). –The next assignment will be posted on the website on Thursday Weekly preceptor-led study group –Every Monday 10:30AM-12:00Noon Mission update volunteers?

3. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Tonight's Public-Lecture Series: Dr. Martin Tomasko Mission to the Surface of Saturn’s Moon Titan (7:30 PM, 308 of Kuiper – this room)

4. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 STEREO “first light” image of Comet McNaught

5. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Today’s Topics Gravity continued –Newton’s Universal law of Gravitation –orbits Diurnal and seasonal variations –The motion of stars and planets in the sky –What is the reason for the seasons?

6. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation Gravitation force between two bodies G = Gravitational Constant = 6.67x10 -11 N m 2 / kg 2 m 1 and m 2 = the masses of the two objects r = the distance between the two (more precisely, the distance between the two centers)

7. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Example #1 A boy with a mass of 25 kg experiences how much less of a gravitational force by the Earth than a man with a mass of 100 kg? (possibly) Useful info M Earth = 5.97x10 24 kg R Earth = 6378 km

8. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Example #2 Suppose that Earth were at 10 AU. How much less of a gravitational force from the Sun would it experience? Note 1AU = 1.5x10 8 km M Sun = 2x10 30 kg

9. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Example #3 How much would a man weight on Mars if he weighs 200 pounds on Earth? Useful info: The mass of Mars = 10 times less than Earth The radius of Mars = ½ times smaller than Earth

10. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Orbits The law of universal gravitation accounts for planets not falling into the Sun nor the Moon crashing into the Earth Paths A, B, and C do not have enough horizontal velocity to escape Earth’s surface whereas Paths D, E, and F do. Path E is where the horizontal velocity is exactly what is needed so its orbit matches the circular curve of the Earth

11. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Physics of spaceflight: Weightlessness Astronauts are actually still falling –they are falling with the spacecraft They sometimes train for missions in large airplanes.

12. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 New Subject: The Night Sky The night sky changes in a number of ways –Diurnal variations –Seasonal variations –Pole-star wander These variations can be understood in terms of the combined effects of the spinning of the Earth on its axis, the orbit of Earth about the Sun, and the precession of Earth’s spin axis.

13. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Diurnal motion “Diurnal” means having a period of 1 day. Stars appear to rise in the east, slowly rotate about the earth and set in the west. This diurnal or daily motion of the stars is caused by the ~24-hour rotation of the Earth on its axis.

14. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Diurnal Motion

15. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Diurnal Motion

16. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Seasonal variations in the night sky The stars also appear to slowly shift in position throughout the year This is due to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun, relative to the (essentially) fixed stars If you follow a particular star on successive evenings, you will find that it rises approximately 4 minutes earlier each night, or 2 hours earlier each month

17. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Constellations Orion – A Winter/Spring Constellation Sagittarius – A Summer Constellation Zodiac Constellations are those that the planets and Sun move through –Near the ecliptic plane! –Leo, Sagittarius, Scorpio, Taurus, etc. The constellation that the Sun is in on your birth date defines which zodiac sign you are

18. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 What causes the change of seasons?

19. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 The source of energy that heats Earth’s surface – the Sun

20. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Proximity to the Sun partly determines the temperature of a planet’s surface The closer a planet is to the Sun, the warmer its surface will be The received solar energy decreases with the square of the distance to the Sun –If Earth were at 2AU, it would receive 2 2 = 4 times less solar energy

21. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 These Solar magnetograms show that the size of the Sun as seen from Earth changes depending on where Earth in its orbit _________________________________________________________ July, 1989 January, 1989 The Earth is closer to the Sun in January

22. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Recall that Earth’s orbits is very nearly circular –The Earth’s orbital eccentricity = 0.017 This is too small to effect the seasons The solar energy at Earth’s orbit at: Perihelion = 1420 W/m 2 Aphelion = 1330 W/m 2 This is not enough of a difference to lead to a change in seasons

23. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 The seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation The Earth’s axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of the Earth’s orbit It is tilted about 23½° away from the perpendicular The Earth maintains this tilt as it orbits the Sun, with the Earth’s north pole pointing toward the north celestial pole

24. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07

25. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07

26. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 In Tucson, when the Sun at its highest point in the sky on Dec 21 (the winter solstice) is at an angle of 35 degrees above the horizon –Solar flux absorbed by Earth per square meter = 450 W/m 2 In Tucson, when the Sun at its highest point in the sky on June 21 (the summer solstice) is at an angle of 82 above the horizon –Solar flux absorbed by Earth per square meter = 1350 W/m 2 Thus, by far, the angle of incidence is the most important factor in leading to a change in seasons on Earth

27. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Stonehenge, England Sun Dagger, Chaco, NM Reading Assignment: –Please read the textbook discussions of the following topics (this is in Chapter 2) as they will not be covered in lectures Celestial Coordinates –Right Asscension –Declination Zenith and Meridian Solstices and Equinoxes

28. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Reading for next class Chapter 3 –pp. 42-55 Also, re-read section 4-2 and box 4-2 (pages 65-69).

29. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Additional slides

30. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 Precession The Earth precesses as it rotates on its axis, much like a top Has a period of about 19,000 years Causes the “pole” star to change

31. PTYS/ASTR 206Gravity (cont.) / Night Sky / Seasons 1/23/07 What is the North Star? Polaris -- for now, but it wont be forever! Vega will be the pole star in about 14,000 years