1. Europe at 1905

2. France: The Dreyfus Affair 1894: French artillery secrets leaked to Germany Jewish Captain Alfred Dreyfus accused, convicted, sentenced to life at Devil’s Island 1896: military covered up evidence exonerating Dreyfus Evidence leaked to press 1898: Paris papers published novelist Émile Zola’s J'accuse 1899: Dreyfus retried, found guilty again, but pardoned France divided over anti-Semitism and government’s protection of rights 1906: Dreyfus fully exonerated, reinstated in French military

3. Labor by 1900 Increased franchise converted the working man into a political force Unions became legalized in Britain, France, and Germany in the 1870s-90s Political changes and unionization led workers (where allowed) to seek change through politics, not violence or rebellion Political parties rose in western Europe to reflect workers’ demands Key concept: Socialism differed across Europe, depending upon nature of existing government

4. Review: Marx’s Expectations Working class conditions to deteriorate, as capitalist class abused workers Ownership of means of production would concentrate in capitalist hands Middle class would slip into working class, and identify with working class’s concerns Ultimately, working class would overthrow the capitalist class International movement: workers had more in common with each other as workers than with nationalist identities (which proved very wrong)

5. Marxism at 1900 Marx continued to predict the disintegration of capitalism, but mellowed to allow for change within the system 1864: Creation of the “First International” by British and French socialists –membership included Marxists, anarchists, socialists, nationalists –supported unions within the political system –helped coordinate union activities across multiple unions –collapsed after the elected, conservative National Assembly crushed the republican Paris Commune in 1871 (20,000 Parisian republicans killed) –First International led Marxism to dominate European socialism 1919 Poster for Communist International

6. UK: Fabianism & Labour Party Great Reform Bill of 1832: increased franchise to propertied middle class Second Reform Act of 1867: Male suffrage in towns Third Reform Act of 1884: Universal male suffrage Fabian Society founded in 1884 as moderate alternative to Marxism in Britain –Emphasized work toward reform within political system, in era of large-scale strikes –Sought to educate public about rationalism of moderate socialism 1906: The new “Labour Party” sent 29 MPs to Parliament French socialists advocated confrontation, strikes, rather than political organization

7. Germany Bismarck originally suppressed the German Social Democratic party (SPD) –SPD became more of an underground, radicalized group –Bismarck enacted social reform, undermining moderate support for SPD After Bismarck, SPD could participate in process, but remained radicalized German socialists split: radical Marxists, and moderate revisionists Revisionist SPD became important party in reichstag and single largest in 1912: use system for gradual reforms In prosperous times, most German workers supported moderate, revisionist SPD

8. Russia Sergei Witte, successful industrialist, named finance minister under Nicholas II 1890-1904 Russian railway system doubled to nearly 60K km Huge increased in iron and steel production A small industrial working class developed, about 3 million Peasants were discontented: taxes paid for programs that didn’t affect them Landowners resented foreign capitalists who profited on industrialization Russian Peasant, circa 1900

9. Russia Freed peasants were desperately poor 1860-1914: population doubled to 100M, straining land ownership 1901: Social Revolutionary Party formed to oppose industrialism Lack of democratic outlet, and tsarist repression, radicalized Russian socialists, and forced them to write and meet outside Russia

10. Lenin in Switzerland Lenin wrote and studied in Switzerland for 17 years, viewing revolutionary Marxism as the only solution for the Russian people Believed that –Professional revolutionaries must lead the working class –A tightly organized revolutionary “vanguard” was required –Tight party organization must be created to resist secret police –Secrecy, training, selectivity in membership