1. 9 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Schema Objects

2. 9-2 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Objectives After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the following: Categorize the main database objects Review the table structure List the data types that are available for columns Create a simple table Understand how constraints are created at time of table creation or after table creation Drop columns and set column UNUSED Create indexes Create indexes using the CREATE TABLE statement Creating function-based indexes

3. 9-3 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Database Objects ObjectDescription TableBasic unit of storage; composed of rows ViewLogically represents subsets of data from one or more tables SequenceGenerates numeric values IndexImproves the performance of some queries SynonymGives alternative names to objects

4. 9-4 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Naming Rules Table names and column names: Must begin with a letter Must be 1–30 characters long Must contain only A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _, $, and # Must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same user Must not be an Oracle server reserved word

5. 9-5 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. You must have: – CREATE TABLE privilege –A storage area You specify: –Table name –Column name, column data type, and column size CREATE TABLE Statement CREATE TABLE [schema.]table (column datatype [DEFAULT expr][,...]);

6. 9-6 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Referencing Another User’s Tables Tables belonging to other users are not in the user’s schema. You should use the owner’s name as a prefix to those tables. USERBUSERA SELECT * FROM userB.employees; SELECT * FROM userA.employees;

7. 9-7 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Specify a default value for a column during an insert. Literal values, expressions, or SQL functions are legal values. Another column’s name or a pseudocolumn are illegal values. The default data type must match the column data type. DEFAULT Option... hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE,... CREATE TABLE hire_dates (id NUMBER(8), hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE); Table created.

8. 9-8 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Creating Tables Create the table. Confirm table creation. DESCRIBE dept CREATE TABLE dept (deptno NUMBER(2), dname VARCHAR2(14), loc VARCHAR2(13), create_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE); Table created.

9. 9-9 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Tables in the Oracle Database User Tables: Are a collection of tables created and maintained by the user Contain user information Data Dictionary: Is a collection of tables created and maintained by the Oracle Server Contain database information

10. 9-10 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. SELECT table_name FROM user_tables ; SELECT* FROM user_catalog ; Querying the Data Dictionary View distinct object types owned by the user. View tables, views, synonyms, and sequences owned by the user. SELECT DISTINCT object_type FROM user_objects ; See the names of tables owned by the user.

11. 9-11 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Data Types Data TypeDescription VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data DATE Date and time values LONG Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB) CLOB Character data (up to 4 GB) RAW and LONG RAW Raw binary data BLOB Binary data (up to 4 GB) BFILE Binary data stored in an external file (up to 4 GB) ROWID A base-64 number system representing the unique address of a row in its table

12. 9-12 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

13. 9-13 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Including Constraints Constraints enforce rules at the table level. Constraints prevent the deletion of a table if there are dependencies. The following constraint types are valid: – NOT NULL – UNIQUE – PRIMARY KEY – FOREIGN KEY – CHECK

14. 9-14 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Constraint Guidelines You can name a constraint, or the Oracle server generates a name by using the SYS_Cn format. Create a constraint at either of the following times: –At the same time as the table is created –After the table has been created Define a constraint at the column or table level. View a constraint in the data dictionary.

15. 9-15 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Create a constraint at same time as table is created

16. 9-16 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Defining Constraints Syntax: Column-level constraint: Table-level constraint: CREATE TABLE [schema.]table (column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint],... [table_constraint][,...]); column,... [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type (column,...), column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type,

17. 9-17 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Defining Constraints Column-level constraint: Table-level constraint: CREATE TABLE employees( employee_id NUMBER(6) CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, first_name VARCHAR2(20),...); CREATE TABLE employees( employee_id NUMBER(6), first_name VARCHAR2(20),... job_id VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY (EMPLOYEE_ID)); 1 2

18. 9-18 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. NOT NULL Constraint Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column: NOT NULL constraint (No row can contain a null value for this column.) Absence of NOT NULL constraint (Any row can contain a null value for this column.) NOT NULL constraint …

19. 9-19 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. CREATE TABLE employees( employee_id NUMBER(6), last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL, salary NUMBER(8,2), commission_pct NUMBER(2,2), hire_date DATE CONSTRAINT emp_hire_date_nn NOT NULL,... The NOT NULL Constraint Is defined at the column level: System named User named

20. 9-20 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. UNIQUE Constraint EMPLOYEES UNIQUE constraint INSERT INTO Not allowed: already exists Allowed …

21. 9-21 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. UNIQUE Constraint Defined at either the table level or the column level: CREATE TABLE employees( employee_id NUMBER(6), last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL, email VARCHAR2(25), salary NUMBER(8,2), commission_pct NUMBER(2,2), hire_date DATE NOT NULL,... CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

22. 9-22 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. PRIMARY KEY Constraint DEPARTMENTS PRIMARY KEY INSERT INTO Not allowed (null value) Not allowed (50 already exists) …

23. 9-23 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. FOREIGN KEY Constraint DEPARTMENTS EMPLOYEES FOREIGN KEY INSERT INTO Not allowed (9 does not exist) Allowed PRIMARY KEY … …

24. 9-24 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. FOREIGN KEY Constraint Defined at either the table level or the column level: CREATE TABLE employees( employee_id NUMBER(6), last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL, email VARCHAR2(25), salary NUMBER(8,2), commission_pct NUMBER(2,2), hire_date DATE NOT NULL,... department_id NUMBER(4), CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (department_id) REFERENCES departments(department_id), CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

25. 9-25 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. FOREIGN KEY Constraint: Keywords FOREIGN KEY : Defines the column in the child table at the table-constraint level REFERENCES : Identifies the table and column in the parent table ON DELETE CASCADE : Deletes the dependent rows in the child table when a row in the parent table is deleted ON DELETE SET NULL : Converts dependent foreign key values to null

26. 9-26 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. CHECK Constraint Defines a condition that each row must satisfy The following expressions are not allowed: –References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and ROWNUM pseudocolumns –Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV functions –Queries that refer to other values in other rows..., salaryNUMBER(2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min CHECK (salary > 0),...

27. 9-27 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. CREATE TABLE : Example CREATE TABLE employees ( employee_id NUMBER(6) CONSTRAINT emp_employee_id PRIMARY KEY, first_name VARCHAR2(20), last_name VARCHAR2(25) CONSTRAINT emp_last_name_nn NOT NULL, email VARCHAR2(25) CONSTRAINT emp_email_nn NOT NULL CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE, phone_number VARCHAR2(20), hire_date DATE CONSTRAINT emp_hire_date_nn NOT NULL, job_id VARCHAR2(10) CONSTRAINT emp_job_nn NOT NULL, salary NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_ck CHECK (salary>0), commission_pct NUMBER(2,2), manager_id NUMBER(6), department_id NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk REFERENCES departments (department_id));

28. 9-28 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. UPDATE employees * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02291: integrity constraint (HR.EMP_DEPT_FK) violated - parent key not found UPDATE employees SET department_id = 55 WHERE department_id = 110; Violating Constraints Department 55 does not exist.

29. 9-29 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Violating Constraints You cannot delete a row that contains a primary key that is used as a foreign key in another table. DELETE FROM departments WHERE department_id = 60; DELETE FROM departments * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02292: integrity constraint (HR.EMP_DEPT_FK) violated - child record found

30. 9-30 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Creating a Table by Using a Subquery Create a table and insert rows by combining the CREATE TABLE statement and the AS subquery option. Match the number of specified columns to the number of subquery columns. Define columns with column names and default values. CREATE TABLE table [(column, column...)] AS subquery;

31. 9-31 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. CREATE TABLE dept80 AS SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 ANNSAL, hire_date FROM employees WHERE department_id = 80; Table created. Creating a Table by Using a Subquery DESCRIBE dept80

32. 9-32 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. ALTER TABLE Statement Use the ALTER TABLE statement to: Add a new column Modify an existing column Define a default value for the new column Drop a column

33. 9-33 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. The ALTER TABLE Statement Use the ALTER TABLE statement to add, modify, or drop columns. ALTER TABLE table ADD (column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [, column datatype]...); ALTER TABLE table MODIFY (column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [, column datatype]...); ALTER TABLE table DROP (column);

34. 9-34 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Adding a Column You use the ADD clause to add columns. The new column becomes the last column. … ALTER TABLE dept80 ADD (job_id VARCHAR2(9)); Table altered.

35. 9-35 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Modifying a Column You can change a column’s data type, size, and default value. A change to the default value affects only subsequent insertions to the table. ALTER TABLEdept80 MODIFY(last_name VARCHAR2(30)); Table altered.

36. 9-36 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Dropping a Column Use the DROP COLUMN clause to drop columns you no longer need from the table. ALTER TABLE dept80 DROP COLUMN job_id; Table altered.

37. 9-37 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. ALTER TABLE SET UNUSED( ); ALTER TABLE SET UNUSED COLUMN ; The SET UNUSED Option You use the SET UNUSED option to mark one or more columns as unused. You use the DROP UNUSED COLUMNS option to remove the columns that are marked as unused. OR ALTER TABLE DROP UNUSED COLUMNS;

38. 9-38 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Notes Only

39. 9-39 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Create a constraint after table has been created

40. 9-40 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Adding a Constraint Syntax Use the ALTER TABLE statement to: Add or drop a constraint, but not modify its structure Enable or disable constraints Add a NOT NULL constraint by using the MODIFY clause ALTER TABLE ADD [CONSTRAINT ] type ( );

41. 9-41 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. ALTER TABLE emp2 modify employee_id Primary Key; Table altered. Adding a Constraint Add a FOREIGN KEY constraint to the EMP2 table indicating that a manager must already exist as a valid employee in the EMP2 table. ALTER TABLE emp2 ADD CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_fk FOREIGN KEY(manager_id) REFERENCES emp2(employee_id); Table altered.

42. 9-42 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. ON DELETE CASCADE Delete child rows when a parent key is deleted. ALTER TABLE Emp2 ADD CONSTRAINT emp_dt_fk FOREIGN KEY (Department_id) REFERENCES departments ON DELETE CASCADE); Table altered.

43. 9-43 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Deferring Constraints Constraints can have the following attributes: DEFERRABLE or NOT DEFERRABLE INITIALLY DEFERRED or INITIALLY IMMEDIATE ALTER TABLE dept2 ADD CONSTRAINT dept2_id_pk PRIMARY KEY (department_id) DEFERRABLE INITIALLY DEFERRED ALTER SESSION SET CONSTRAINTS= IMMEDIATE SET CONSTRAINTS dept2_id_pk IMMEDIATE Deferring constraint on creation Changing all constraints for a session Changing a specific constraint attribute

44. 9-44 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Dropping a Constraint Remove the manager constraint from the EMP2 table. Remove the PRIMARY KEY constraint on the DEPT2 table and drop the associated FOREIGN KEY constraint on the EMP2.DEPARTMENT_ID column. ALTER TABLE emp2 DROP CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_fk; Table altered. ALTER TABLE dept2 DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE; Table altered.

45. 9-45 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Disabling Constraints Execute the DISABLE clause of the ALTER TABLE statement to deactivate an integrity constraint. Apply the CASCADE option to disable dependent integrity constraints. ALTER TABLEemp2 DISABLE CONSTRAINT emp_dt_fk; Table altered.

46. 9-46 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Enabling Constraints Activate an integrity constraint currently disabled in the table definition by using the ENABLE clause. A UNIQUE index is automatically created if you enable a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY constraint. ALTER TABLEemp2 ENABLE CONSTRAINTemp_dt_fk; Table altered.

47. 9-47 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Notes Only

48. 9-48 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Cascading Constraints The CASCADE CONSTRAINTS clause is used along with the DROP COLUMN clause. TThe CASCADE CONSTRAINTS clause drops all referential integrity constraints that refer to the primary and unique keys defined on the dropped columns. The CASCADE CONSTRAINTS clause also drops all multicolumn constraints defined on the dropped columns.

49. 9-49 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Cascading Constraints Example: ALTER TABLE emp2 DROP COLUMN employee_id CASCADE CONSTRAINTS; Table altered. ALTER TABLE test1 DROP (pk, fk, col1) CASCADE CONSTRAINTS; Table altered.

50. 9-50 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. SELECTconstraint_name, constraint_type, search_condition FROMuser_constraints WHEREtable_name = 'EMPLOYEES'; Viewing Constraints Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all constraint definitions and names. …

51. 9-51 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. SELECTconstraint_name, column_name FROMuser_cons_columns WHEREtable_name = 'EMPLOYEES'; Viewing the Columns Associated with Constraints View the columns associated with the constraint names in the USER_CONS_COLUMNS view. …

52. 9-52 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Dropping a Table All data and structure in the table are deleted. Any pending transactions are committed. All indexes are dropped. All constraints are dropped. You cannot roll back the DROP TABLE statement. DROP TABLE dept80; Table dropped.

53. 9-53 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Changing the Name of an Object To change the name of a table, view, sequence, or synonym, you execute the RENAME statement. You must be the owner of the object. RENAME dept TO detail_dept; Table renamed.

54. 9-54 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Truncating a Table The TRUNCATE TABLE statement: Removes all rows from a table Releases the storage space used by that table You cannot roll back row removal when using TRUNCATE. Alternatively, you can remove rows by using the DELETE statement. TRUNCATE TABLE detail_dept; Table truncated.

55. 9-55 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Overview of Indexes Indexes are created: Automatically – PRIMARY KEY creation – UNIQUE KEY creation Manually – CREATE INDEX statement – CREATE TABLE statement

56. 9-56 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. CREATE INDEX with CREATE TABLE Statement CREATE TABLE NEW_EMP (employee_id NUMBER(6) PRIMARY KEY USING INDEX (CREATE INDEX emp_id_idx ON NEW_EMP(employee_id)), first_name VARCHAR2(20), last_name VARCHAR2(25)); Table created. SELECT INDEX_NAME, TABLE_NAME FROM USER_INDEXES WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'NEW_EMP';

57. 9-57 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. Notes Only

58. 9-58 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved. CREATE INDEX upper_dept_name_idx ON dept2(UPPER(department_name)); Index created. SELECT * FROM dept2 WHERE UPPER(department_name) = 'SALES'; Function-Based Indexes A function-based index is based on expressions. The index expression is built from table columns, constants, SQL functions, and user-defined functions.