1. (Ch. 1 part 2) Deontology Greek word – deon (duty)
Focus is on the rights, duties, obligations and rules
Looks at intrinsic value of the action, what are you having to do?
consequences/outcome of the action are secondary, or to some of these ethicists, completely irrelevant.
Spinello: deontological ethicists “argue for the priority of the right over the good” … “their rightness or wrongness does not depend in any way in the consequences which they effect.”

2. Kant - Universalism
Immanuel Kant looks to what would happen if the action were universal.
“I shall never act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim become universal law.”
Absolutist: always wrong to lie. No exceptions
According to Kant, it’s unethical to make arbitrary exceptions for ourselves.

3. Kant’s Categorical Imperatives (a.k.a. Absolute Commands)
Kant’s first formulation:
“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
Kant’s second formulation:
“Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means to an end.”
Three minute philosophy:

4. Two problems with the Universalism theory
Rigidity:
Some exceptions to absolute duty would make a lot of common sense.
Sometimes two duties will conflict.
What to do then?

5. Another deontological theory
Pluralistic Deontology
WD Ross’ prima facie duties:
Fidelity
Reparation
Gratitude
Non-injury/harm prevention
Beneficence
Self-improvement
Justice
Ethics in a Computing Culture

6. Teleological Ethics: Consequentialism
Telos: Greek for end or purpose
Actions evaluated by their consequence.
Consequentialism: the consequence of an action, not the motivation behind the action, makes an action good or bad
Guiding principle: to increase happiness, a.k.a. utility (satisfies needs and values)
Utilitarianism: an action is good if it causes more happiness than a potential, alternative decision*
*Look at the net consequence of behaviors.

7. Consequentialism/Utilitarianism’s Calculus
Predictive
Greatest good for the greatest number, including “depth” of happiness, p. 17 ex.
Looking at the net consequences:
Spinello’s summary: without being arbitrary, utilitarianism requires a “moral calculus”… “using all the possibilities” to find “the greatest net expectable utility”
Ethics in a Computing Culture

8. Utilitarianism Ethicists
Theory: correct course of action maximizes expected utility &/or minimizes expected negative utility for humans
Leading theorists are Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill
Bentham looks for what promotes “the general good”:
"An act is right from an ethical point of view if, and only if, the sum total of utilities produced by that act is greater than the sum total utilities produced by another act the agent could have performed in its place."
Bentham ( )
Mill ( )

9. Utilitarianism variants
Act Utilitarianism: the concept of performing an action that maximizes happiness
Act Utilitarianism & Officer Schmidt’s dilemma
Rule Utilitarianism: the concept of adopting a set of rules, and only violating them in the case where compelling evidence indicates that utility is increased by such a violation.
See Gert’s rules, p. 19
Rule Utilitarianism & Officer Schmidt’s dilemma
Ethics in a Computing Culture

10. Comparing Deontology to Teleological Ethics
Deontological ethics theories differ from teleological/consequentialist theories
the intention behind the action is considered more important than the end result
focuses on rights, duties, obligations, and rules
assumes that the result will end badly if these rules are not met
Ethics in a Computing Culture

11. Calvin is not a deontologist, but is he a consequentialist?
Egoism

12. Contractarianism
State of Nature: people are rational beings who seek to promote the common interests of society in order to promote their own self-interests
In Leviathan by Hobbes, life w/o gov’t is pondered and declared to be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”
w/o rules, complete entitlement to everything
To escape this condition “men in the state of nature accede to a social contract and establish a society”
Thomas Hobbes
Ethics in a Computing Culture

13. Question: “Is the person’s self-interest really maximized by acting for the public good?”
Game Theory: math modeling of scenarios of conflict and cooperation between rational decision makers.
Prisoner’s Dilemma: a scenario in which two people are offered a choice—cooperate or defect
Example with explanation:
Multiple iterations, as opposed to a one shot, would model closer to the real world.
Best strategy, cooperate then tit for tat; Cooperate would be best
Semi-transparent Prisoner’s Dilemma, another Golden Balls
Ethics in a Computing Culture

14. Contractarianism variant
As opposed to placing value on duty or outcome, the focus shifts to individual rights
Ex. John Locke’s fundamental rights (life, liberty, property)
What is a right?
Negative right:
w/o gov’t interference
examples?
Positive:
obligation to provide/help

15. Ethics of Justice
Impartiality: the quality that every person is treated equally and no one is given preferential treatment in the theory
Universality
Rawls’s Theory of Justice: explores the basic rules that are necessary to ensure fairness in society as a whole
argues that the principles of “justice as fairness” underlie all just societies
Ethics in a Computing Culture

16. Ethics of Justice (continued)
According to Rawl’s Theory of Justice, in order for a society to be just:
Everyone has as much freedom as possible.
Everyone has an equal opportunity to reach desirable positions in society.
All socio-economic differences are of the most benefit to the least advantaged.
Ethics in a Computing Culture

17. Ethics of Justice (continued)
Difference Principle: social and economic inequalities are justified only if such inequalities provide the greatest benefit to the least advantaged
Explains why impartiality is not always desirable.
Ethics in a Computing Culture

18. Rawl’s Veil of Ignorance
Veil of Ignorance: a test of whether rules are fair.
Card Game
Idea: What if you got to choose your social contract before you were born, but you did not know your lot in life, would you consider the rules to be fair?
Ethics in a Computing Culture

19. Ethics of Caring
Nel Noddings: morality boils down to a single virtue, which is caring for other individuals
Difference in how good is defined:
Noddings: the only inherent good is caring
Kant: the only inherent good is good will
Utilitarians: the only inherent good is happiness
Ethics in a Computing Culture

20. Ethics of Caring (continued)
Because it is possible to care for everyone, impartiality is rejected.
It is only necessary to care for those with whom one shares a relationship.
There is no universal way to externally judge whether an action is morally right or wrong.
The judgment varies on the relationship between the one-caring individual and the person being cared for.
Ethics in a Computing Culture

21. Ethics of Caring (continued)
A computerized pill dispenser is equipped with alarms and self-opening caps that help remind patients to take their medication.
Is it morally permissible to require all patients with a history of ignoring their medication to use this technology?
Is it morally permissible to require all elderly patients to use this technology?
Ethics in a Computing Culture

22. Ethics of Reasoning
Pure Reason: deductive reasoning on which Euclidean geometry is based; its purpose is to establish the truth
issues are straightforward
Practical Reason: the reasoning used to make decisions
issues are complex
used to resolve ethical issues
Ethics in a Computing Culture

23. Ethics of Reasoning (continued)
Deliberative Critical Discussion: a conversation in which the participants consider the partners in the discussion are well-intended and informed; with this understanding, participants bring their knowledge to the discussion to share their own opinions and develop more refined perspectives.
Avoid:
- charged language
- hyperbole
- Ad hominem
Ethics in a Computing Culture

24. Reconciling Ethical Approaches
Let each approach shed light on different aspects of an ethical problem
Normative guidance:
Autonomy
Non-maleficence
Beneficence
Justice