1.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 5.1Introduction Pointers –Powerful, but difficult to master –Simulate call-by-reference –Close relationship with arrays and strings

2.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 5.2Pointer Variable Declarations and Initialization Pointer variables –Contain memory addresses as their values –Normal variables contain a specific value (direct reference) –Pointers contain the address of a variable that has a specific value (indirect reference) Indirection –Referencing a pointer value Pointer declarations –* indicates variable is a pointer int *myPtr; declares a pointer to an int, a pointer of type int * –Multiple pointers require multiple asterisks int *myPtr1, *myPtr2; count 7 countPtr count 7

3.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 5.2Pointer Variable Declarations and Initialization Can declare pointers to any data type Pointers should be initialized to NULL or a specific address

4.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 5.3Pointer Operators & (address operator) –Returns the address of its operand –Example int y = 5; int *yPtr; yPtr = &y; // yPtr gets address of y –yPtr “points to” y yPtr y 5 yptr 500000600000 y 5 address of y is value of yptr

5.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 5.3Pointer Operators * (indirection/dereferencing operator) –Returns the value of what its operand points to –*yPtr returns y (because yPtr points to y ). –* can be used to assign a value to a location in memory *yptr = 7; // changes y to 7 –Dereferenced pointer (operand of * ) must be an lvalue (no constants) * and & are inverses (though not always applicable) –Cancel each other out *&myVar == myVar and &*yPtr == yPtr

6.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 5.4Call by Reference with Pointers Call by reference with pointer arguments –Pass address of argument using & operator –When the function is called, must be passed an address doubleNum( &myNum ); –Allows you to change actual location in memory –Arrays are not passed with & because the array name is already a pointer (more on this later) –* operator used to dereference pointer inside function void doubleNum( int *number ) { *number = 2 * ( *number ); } Note: I suggest using C++ style call by reference instead

7.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 1. Function prototype - takes a pointer to an int. 1.1 Initialize variables 2. Call function 3. Define function Program Output 1// Fig. 5.7: fig05_07.cpp 2// Cube a variable using call-by-reference 3// with a pointer argument 4#include 5 6using std::cout; 7using std::endl; 8 9void cubeByReference( int * ); // prototype 10 11int main() 12{ 13 int number = 5; 14 15 cout << "The original value of number is " << number; 16 cubeByReference( &number ); 17 cout << "\nThe new value of number is " << number << endl; 18 return 0; 19} 20 21void cubeByReference( int *nPtr ) 22{ 23 *nPtr = *nPtr * *nPtr * *nPtr; // cube number in main 24} Inside cubeByReference, *nPtr is used ( *nPtr is number ). The original value of number is 5 The new value of number is 125 Notice how the address of number is given - cubeByReference expects a pointer (an address of a variable).

8.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 5.5Using the Const Qualifier with Pointers const qualifier –Variable cannot be changed –const used when function does not need to change a variable –Attempting to change a const variable is a compiler error const pointers –Point to same memory location –Must be initialized when declared int *const myPtr = &x; Constant pointer to a non-constant int (means myPtr cannot appear on the left-hand side of assignment) const int *myPtr = &x; Non-constant pointer to a constant int (means *myPtr cannot appear on the left-hand side of assignment) const int *const Ptr = &x; Constant pointer to a constant int

9.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 1. Declare variables 1.1 Declare const pointer to an int. 2. Change *ptr (which is x ). 2.1 Attempt to change ptr. 3. Output Program Output 1// Fig. 5.13: fig05_13.cpp 2// Attempting to modify a constant pointer to 3// non-constant data 4#include 5 6int main() 7{7{ 8 int x, y; 9 10 int * const ptr = &x; // ptr is a constant pointer to an 11 // integer. An integer can be modified 12 // through ptr, but ptr always points 13 // to the same memory location. 14 *ptr = 7; 15 ptr = &y; 16 17 return 0; 18} Error E2024 Fig05_13.cpp 15: Cannot modify a const object in function main() Changing *ptr is allowed - x is not a constant. Changing ptr is an error - ptr is a constant pointer.

10.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 10 5.6Bubble Sort Using Call-by-reference Implement bubblesort using pointers –swap function must receive the address (using & ) of the array elements array elements have call-by-value default –Using pointers and the * operator, swap is able to switch the values of the actual array elements Psuedocode Initialize array print data in original order Call function bubblesort print sorted array Define bubblesort

11.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 1// Fig. 5.15: fig05_15.cpp 2// This program puts values into an array, sorts the values into 3// ascending order, and prints the resulting array. 4#include 5 6using std::cout; 7using std::endl; 8 9#include 10 11using std::setw; 12 13void bubbleSort( int *, const int ); 14 15int main() 16{ 17 const int arraySize = 10; 18 int a[ arraySize ] = { 2, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 89, 68, 45, 37 }; 19 int i; 20 21 cout << "Data items in original order\n"; 22 23 for ( i = 0; i < arraySize; i++ ) 24 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ i ]; 25 26 bubbleSort( a, arraySize ); // sort the array 27 cout << "\nData items in ascending order\n"; 28 29 for ( i = 0; i < arraySize; i++ ) 30 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ i ]; 31 32 cout << endl; 33 return 0; 34} 1. Initialize array 1.1 Declare variables 2. Print array 2.1 Call bubbleSort 2.2 Print array Bubblesort gets passed the address of array elements (pointers). The name of an array is a pointer.

12.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 3. Define bubbleSort 3.1 Define swap Program Output 36void bubbleSort( int *array, const int size ) 37{ 38 void swap( int * const, int * const ); 39 40 for ( int pass = 0; pass < size - 1; pass++ ) 41 42 for ( int j = 0; j < size - 1; j++ ) 43 44 if ( array[ j ] > array[ j + 1 ] ) 45 swap( &array[ j ], &array[ j + 1 ] ); 46} 47 48void swap( int * const element1Ptr, int * const element2Ptr ) 49{ 50 int hold = *element1Ptr; 51 *element1Ptr = *element2Ptr; 52 *element2Ptr = hold; 53} swap takes pointers (addresses of array elements) and dereferences them to modify the original array elements. Data items in original order 2 6 4 8 10 12 89 68 45 37 Data items in ascending order 2 4 6 8 10 12 37 45 68 89

13.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 5.7Pointer Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic Pointer arithmetic –Increment/decrement pointer (++ or -- ) –Add/subtract an integer to/from a pointer( + or +=, - or -= ) –Pointer arithmetic is meaningless unless performed on an array –Meaning of pointer arithmetic: p += C means “add to p: C multiplied by the size of the element to which p points. 5 element int array on a machine using 4 byte int s –vPtr points to first element v[ 0 ], which is at location 3000 vPtr = 3000 –vPtr += 2 ; sets vPtr to 3008 vPtr points to v[ 2 ] pointer variable vPtr v[0]v[1]v[2]v[4]v[3] 30003004300830123016 location

14.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 14 5.7Pointer Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic Pointers assignment –If not the same type, a cast operator must be used –Exception: pointer to void (type void * ) Generic pointer, represents any type No casting needed to convert a pointer to void pointer void pointers cannot be dereferenced

15.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 5.8The Relationship Between Pointers and Arrays Arrays and pointers closely related –Array name is a constant pointer –Pointers can do array subscripting operations –Having declared an array b[ 5 ] and a pointer bPtr To set bPtr to b bptr = b Note that bptr is equal to the address of the first element of b bptr = &b[ 0 ]

16.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 16 5.8The Relationship Between Pointers and Arrays Accessing array elements with pointers Fundamental identities (definitions in C/C++) –If b is an array, then: b is a constant pointer to the first element of the array, i.e. b === &b[0] b[ i ] === *( b + i ) –So, pointers can be subscripted (pointer/subscript notation) bPtr[ 3 ] same as b[ 3 ]

17.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 5.9Arrays of Pointers Arrays can contain pointers –Commonly used to store an array of strings char *suit[ 4 ] = {"Hearts", "Diamonds", "Clubs", "Spades" }; –Each element of suit is a pointer to a char * (a string) –The strings are not in the array, only pointers to the strings are in the array –suit array has a fixed size, but strings can be of any size suit[3] suit[2] suit[1] suit[0]’H’’e’’a’’r’’t’’s’ ’\0’ ’D’’i’’a’’m’’o’’n’’d’’s’ ’\0’ ’C’’l’’u’’b’’s’ ’\0’ ’S’’p’’a’’d’’e’’s’ ’\0’

18.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 5.11Function Pointers Pointers to functions –Contain the address of the function –Similar to how an array name is the address of its first element –Function name is starting address of code that defines function Function pointers can be –Passed to functions –Stored in arrays –Assigned to other function pointers

19.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 5.11Function Pointers Example: bubblesort –Function bubble takes a function pointer The function determines whether the the array is sorted into ascending or descending sorting –The argument in bubble for the function pointer bool ( *compare )( int, int ) tells bubble to expect a pointer to a function that takes two int s and returns a bool –If the parentheses were left out bool *compare( int, int ) would declare a function that receives two integers and returns a pointer to a bool

20.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 1. Initialize array 2. Prompt for ascending or descending sorting 2.1 Put appropriate function pointer into bubblesort 2.2 Call bubble 3. Print results 1// Fig. 5.26: fig05_26.cpp 2// Multipurpose sorting program using function pointers 3#include 4 5using std::cout; 6using std::cin; 7using std::endl; 8 9#include 10 11using std::setw; 12 13void bubble( int [], const int, bool (*)( int, int ) ); 14bool ascending( int, int ); 15bool descending( int, int ); 16 17int main() 18{ 19 const int arraySize = 10; 20 int order, 21 counter, 22 a[ arraySize ] = { 2, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 89, 68, 45, 37 }; 23 24 cout << "Enter 1 to sort in ascending order,\n" 25 << "Enter 2 to sort in descending order: "; 26 cin >> order; 27 cout << "\nData items in original order\n"; 28 29 for ( counter = 0; counter < arraySize; counter++ ) 30 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ counter ]; 31 32 if ( order == 1 ) { 33 bubble( a, arraySize, ascending ); 34 cout << "\nData items in ascending order\n"; Notice the function pointer parameter.

21.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 3.1 Define functions 35 } 36 else { 37 bubble( a, arraySize, descending ); 38 cout << "\nData items in descending order\n"; 39 } 40 41 for ( counter = 0; counter < arraySize; counter++ ) 42 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ counter ]; 43 44 cout << endl; 45 return 0; 46} 47 48void bubble( int work[], const int size, 49 bool (*compare)( int, int ) ) 50{ 51 void swap( int * const, int * const ); // prototype 52 53 for ( int pass = 1; pass < size; pass++ ) 54 55 for ( int count = 0; count < size - 1; count++ ) 56 57 if ( (*compare)( work[ count ], work[ count + 1 ] ) ) 58 swap( &work[ count ], &work[ count + 1 ] ); 59} 60 61void swap( int * const element1Ptr, int * const element2Ptr ) 62{ 63 int temp; 64 65 temp = *element1Ptr; 66 *element1Ptr = *element2Ptr; 67 *element2Ptr = temp; 68} ascending and descending return true or false. bubble calls swap if the function call returns true. Notice how function pointers are called using the dereferencing operator. The * is not required, but emphasizes that compare is a function pointer and not a function.

22.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 3.1 Define functions Program output 69 70bool ascending( int a, int b ) 71{ 72 return b < a; // swap if b is less than a 73} 74 75bool descending( int a, int b ) 76{ 77 return b > a; // swap if b is greater than a 78} Enter 1 to sort in ascending order, Enter 2 to sort in descending order: 1 Data items in original order 2 6 4 8 10 12 89 68 45 37 Data items in ascending order 2 4 6 8 10 12 37 45 68 89 Enter 1 to sort in ascending order, Enter 2 to sort in descending order: 2 Data items in original order 2 6 4 8 10 12 89 68 45 37 Data items in descending order 89 68 45 37 12 10 8 6 4 2

23.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 5.12.1 Fundamentals of Characters and Strings Character constant –Integer value of a character –Single quotes –'z' is the integer value of z, which is 122 String –Series of characters treated as one unit –Can include letters, digits, special characters +, -, *... –String literal (string constants) Enclosed in double quotes, for example: "I like C++" –Array of characters, ends with null character '\0' –Strings are constant pointers (like arrays) Value of string is the address of its first character

24.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 5.12.1 Fundamentals of Characters and Strings String assignment –Character array: char color[] = "blue"; Creates 5 element char array, color, (last element is '\0' ) The array elements of color[] can be modified, because storage is allocated for 5 characters. –variable of type char * char *colorPtr = "blue"; Creates a pointer to string “blue”, colorPtr, and stores it somewhere in memory Because blue is a string constant, it cannot be modified. The only storage allocated here is one pointer.

25.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 5.12.1 Fundamentals of Characters and Strings Reading strings –Assign input to character array word[ 20 ] cin >> word Reads characters until whitespace or EOF String could exceed array size cin >> setw( 20 ) >> word; Reads 19 characters (space reserved for '\0' ) cin.getline –Reads a line of text –Using cin.getline cin.getline( array, size, delimiter character);

26.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 5.12.1 Fundamentals of Characters and Strings cin.getline –Copies input into specified array until either One less than the size is reached The delimiter character is input –Example char sentence[ 80 ]; cin.getline( sentence, 80, '\n' );

27.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 5.12.2 String Manipulation Functions of the String-handling Library String handling library provides functions to –Manipulate strings –Compare strings –Search strings –Tokenize strings (separate them into logical pieces) ASCII character code –Strings are compared using their character codes –Easy to make comparisons (greater than, less than, equal to) Tokenizing –Breaking strings into tokens, separated by user-specified characters –Tokens are usually logical units, such as words (separated by spaces) –"This is my string" has 4 word tokens (separated by spaces)

28.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 5.12.2String Manipulation Functions of the String-handling Library char *strcpy( char *s1, const char *s2 ); Copies the string s2 into the character array s1. The value of s1 is returned. char *strncpy( char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n ); Copies at most n characters of the string s2 into the character array s1. The value of s1 is returned. char *strcat( char *s1, const char *s2 ); Appends the string s2 to the string s1. The first character of s2 overwrites the terminating null character of s1. The value of s1 is returned. char *strncat( char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n ); Appends at most n characters of string s2 to string s1. The first character of s2 overwrites the terminating null character of s1. The value of s1 is returned. int strcmp( const char *s1, const char *s2 ); Compares the string s1 with the string s2. The function returns a value of zero, less than zero or greater than zero if s1 is equal to, less than or greater than s2, respectively.

29.  2000 Deitel & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 5.12.2String Manipulation Functions of the String-handling Library (III) int strncmp( const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n ); Compares up to n characters of the string s1 with the string s2. The function returns zero, less than zero or greater than zero if s1 is equal to, less than or greater than s2, respectively. char *strtok( char *s1, const char *s2 ); A sequence of calls to strtok breaks string s1 into “tokens”—logical pieces such as words in a line of text—delimited by characters contained in string s2. The first call contains s1 as the first argument, and subsequent calls to continue tokenizing the same string contain NULL as the first argument. A pointer to the current to­ken is returned by each call. If there are no more tokens when the function is called, NULL is returned. size_t strlen( const char *s ); Determines the length of string s. The number of characters preceding the terminating null character is returned.