1. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 1 Kant III Charles Manekin

2. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 2 Topics of Discussion Metaphysics as an a priori science Metaphysics as an a priori science The analytic/synthetic distinction The analytic/synthetic distinction Synthetic a priori judgments Synthetic a priori judgments How is pure mathematics possible? How is pure mathematics possible?

3. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 3 How is a Pure Science of Nature Possible What is “nature” for Kant? A pure science of nature is possible through understanding the sources of the a priori features of such a science. What are some of the a priori features? The permanence of substance, that every effect has a cause, and every cause entails its effect, etc.

4. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 4 The Sources of the Pure Science of Nature These will be found in the Pure Concepts of the Understanding. The distinction between judgments of perception and judgments of experience. The distinction between judgments of perception and judgments of experience. J of p require the logical conception of perception in a thinking substance.J of p require the logical conception of perception in a thinking substance. “The room is warm” – judgment of perception. I simply put together the subject and object, but this does not constitute experience.“The room is warm” – judgment of perception. I simply put together the subject and object, but this does not constitute experience.

5. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 5 Turning a Judgment of Perception into a Judgment of Experience “Synthetic” or “expansive” judgments. The predicate is not even implicitly thought in the subject; the predicate-concept is not contained within the subject-concept; it adds to it. Example: “All bodies have weight”. “Weight” amplifies my knowledge of body. When I make such a judgment, I put/think together the predicate and the subject concepts; hence the judgments are synthetic.

6. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 6 All Analytics Judgments are known a priori All Analytic judgments are based on the Law of Contradiction. Since the predicate is already contained within the subject, the predicate cannot be denied without denying the subject, i.e., without contradiction In effect, they reduce to identity statements. All bachelors are unmarried males. Bachelors= df unmarried males All unmarried males are unmarried males

7. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 7 Are all synthetic propositions a posteriori? Well, empirical judgments, i.e., judgments of experience, are. Well, empirical judgments, i.e., judgments of experience, are. But – and here is the shock – there are some synthetic propositions that are a priori But – and here is the shock – there are some synthetic propositions that are a priori How are mathematical judgments synthetic? How are mathematical judgments synthetic? “7+5=12”. The subject concept involves a combination of two numbers in a single number. But in order to have the concept of sum, i.e., of adding of some units to another, we need some features of experience. “7+5=12”. The subject concept involves a combination of two numbers in a single number. But in order to have the concept of sum, i.e., of adding of some units to another, we need some features of experience. Mathematical judgments proceed by way of the construction of concepts. Mathematical judgments proceed by way of the construction of concepts. Hume’s Fork Needs be a Trident Hume’s Fork Needs be a Trident

8. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 8 Metaphysical judgments are synthetic Here, too, one can distinguish between judgments pertaining to metaphysics (“Substance underlies properties”) and metaphysical judgments (“Substance is permanent.”) The first is analytics, the second is not. “The generation of a priori knowledge by intuition (experience) and well as by concepts, in fine, of synthetical propositions a priori, especially in philosophical knowledge, constitutes the essential subject of metaphysics.”

9. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 9 Is Metaphysics Possible? Well, the important judgments of metaphysics are synthetic and a priori. So, are synthetic a priori judgments possible? Well, mathematical judgments are synthetic a priori. And nobody disputes the mathematics. So how are the synthetic a priori judgments of mathematics possible?

10. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 10 Transcendental Questions How is pure mathematics possible? How is pure mathematics possible? How is pure natural science possible? How is pure natural science possible? How is metaphysics in general possible? How is metaphysics in general possible? How is metaphysics as a science possible? How is metaphysics as a science possible?

11. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 11 How a judgment of perception becomes a judgment of experience Sect. 29. When making an experiment with Hume's problematical concept… the concept of cause, we have, in the first place, given a priori, by means of logic, the form of a conditional judgment in general, i.e., we have one given cognition as antecedent and another as consequence. But it is possible, that in perception we may meet with a rule of relation, which runs thus: that a certain phenomenon is constantly followed by another (though not conversely), and this is a case for me to use the hypothetical judgment, and, for instance, to say, if the sun shines long enough upon a body, it grows warm. Here there is indeed as yet no necessity of connection, or concept of cause. Sect. 29. When making an experiment with Hume's problematical concept… the concept of cause, we have, in the first place, given a priori, by means of logic, the form of a conditional judgment in general, i.e., we have one given cognition as antecedent and another as consequence. But it is possible, that in perception we may meet with a rule of relation, which runs thus: that a certain phenomenon is constantly followed by another (though not conversely), and this is a case for me to use the hypothetical judgment, and, for instance, to say, if the sun shines long enough upon a body, it grows warm. Here there is indeed as yet no necessity of connection, or concept of cause.

12. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 12 How a judgment of perception becomes a judgment of experience But I proceed and say, that if this proposition, which is merely a subjective connection of perceptions, is to be a judgment of experience, it must be considered as necessary and universally valid. Such a proposition would be, ”the sun is by its light the cause of heat." The empirical rule is now considered as a law, and as valid not merely of appearances but valid of them for the purposes of a possible experience which requires universal and therefore necessarily valid rules. I therefore easily comprehend the concept of cause, as a concept necessarily belonging to the mere form of experience, and its possibility as a synthetical union of perceptions in consciousness generally; but I do not at all comprehend the possibility of a thing generally as a cause, because the concept of cause denotes a condition not at all belonging to things, but to experience. It is nothing in fact but an objectively valid cognition of appearances and of their succession, so far as the antecedent can be conjoined with the consequent, according to the rule of hypothetical judgments. But I proceed and say, that if this proposition, which is merely a subjective connection of perceptions, is to be a judgment of experience, it must be considered as necessary and universally valid. Such a proposition would be, ”the sun is by its light the cause of heat." The empirical rule is now considered as a law, and as valid not merely of appearances but valid of them for the purposes of a possible experience which requires universal and therefore necessarily valid rules. I therefore easily comprehend the concept of cause, as a concept necessarily belonging to the mere form of experience, and its possibility as a synthetical union of perceptions in consciousness generally; but I do not at all comprehend the possibility of a thing generally as a cause, because the concept of cause denotes a condition not at all belonging to things, but to experience. It is nothing in fact but an objectively valid cognition of appearances and of their succession, so far as the antecedent can be conjoined with the consequent, according to the rule of hypothetical judgments. ALL SYNTHETIC A PRIORI PRINCIPLES ARE PRINCIPLES OF POSSIBLE EXPERIENCE ALL SYNTHETIC A PRIORI PRINCIPLES ARE PRINCIPLES OF POSSIBLE EXPERIENCE

13. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 13 Schematization of Pure Concepts of Understanding Every cause has an effect (Maxim based on pure concept of cause) Every cause has an effect (Maxim based on pure concept of cause) Every cause proceeds its effect (note the element of time that is added – and time is the inner form of sensible intuition.) Every cause proceeds its effect (note the element of time that is added – and time is the inner form of sensible intuition.) Hence, the pure category must be represented as temporal – schematized. Hence, the pure category must be represented as temporal – schematized.

14. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 14 How is nature possible? Nature in the material sense is possible by means of the constitution of our sensibility Nature in the material sense is possible by means of the constitution of our sensibility Nature in the formal sense is possible by means of the constitution of our understanding. Nature in the formal sense is possible by means of the constitution of our understanding. “we must not seek the universal laws of nature in nature by means of experience, but conversely must seek nature, as to its universal conformity to law, in the conditions of the possibility of experience, which lie in our sensibility and in our understanding “we must not seek the universal laws of nature in nature by means of experience, but conversely must seek nature, as to its universal conformity to law, in the conditions of the possibility of experience, which lie in our sensibility and in our understanding

15. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 15 How is Metaphysics in General Possible The problem posed by pure reason: The problem posed by pure reason: The empirical use to which reason limits the pure understanding, does not fully satisfy the proper destination of the latter. Every single experience is only a part of the whole sphere of its domain, but the absolute totality of all possible experience is itself not experience. Yet it is a necessary [concrete] problem for reason, the mere representation of which requires concepts quite different from the categories, whose use is only immanent, or refers to experience, so far as it can be given. Whereas the concepts of reason aim at the completeness, i.e., the collective unity of all possible experience, and thereby transcend every given experience. Thus they become transcendent

16. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 16 Concepts of Understanding vs. Ideas of Reason Concepts apply to experience; Ideas go beyond experience. The source of errors in metaphysics lies in reason’s going beyond the bounds of experience – the reflection on the pure ideas of reason.

17. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 17 Deductions of the Ideas of Reason from the Forms of Syllogism In syllogistic reasoning, we are presented with a conclusion, and we ask, “What are the conditions for the conclusion?” The Ideas of Pure Reason are based on the assumption that there can be a complete set of conditions, i.e., the conditions for the conditions for the conditions, etc.

18. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 18 Ideas of Pure Reason Categorical Syllogism (“Every A is B/Every B is C//Every A is C”) yields the the Idea of the Self (the complete subject) Hypothetical Syllogism (“If A then B/If B then C// If A then C”) yields the Idea of the World (the complete series of conditions) Disjunctive Syllogism (“Either A or B/Either B or C//Either A or C”) yields the Idea of God (the complex of possibles) The ideas of the Self, the World as Complete, and God, are of no help in determining the laws of nature or experience – they are beyond experience.

19. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 19 Categorical Syllogism (“Every A is B/Every B is C//Every A is C”) yields the the Idea of the Self (the complete subject) Hypothetical Syllogism (“If A then B/If B then C// If A then C”) yields the Idea of the World (the complete series of conditions) Disjunctive Syllogism (“Either A or B/Either B or C//Either A or C”) yields the Idea of God (the complex of possibles) The ideas of the Self, the World as Complete, and God, are of no help in determining the laws of nature or experience – they are beyond experience.

20. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 20 Psychological Ideas The Concept of the self is not given in experience; in fact the Subject cannot be an object of experience precisely because it is a subject. The soul as eternal is something for which no experience is possible. At best we can say that soul is permanent as long as we are alive (because of our temporal experience of the unity of consciousness. The defeat of the Cartesian distinction between skepticism of the External World via certainty of the Internal World.

21. 11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 21 Cosmological Ideas 1. Thesis: The World has, as to, Time and Space, a Beginning (limit). Antithesis: The World is, as to Time and Space, infinite. 2. Thesis: Everything in the World consists of [elements that are] simple. Antithesis: There is nothing simple, but everything is composite. 3. Thesis: There are in the World Causes through Freedom. Antithesis: There is no Liberty, but all is Nature. 4. Thesis: In the Series of the World-Causes there is some necessary Being. Antithesis: There is Nothing necessary in the World, but in this Series All is incidental.