1. Unit 1 Notes Sun as Power Geology

2. Electromagnetic Radiation  We gain our knowledge by the study of light emitted from stars and other bodies.  Ex. X-Rays, Cosmic Rays, Visible Light, Microwaves, Radio Waves (Classified by wavelength on the Electromagnetic Spectrum)

3. Electromagnetic Spectrum

4. Fusion vs. Fission  Nuclear Fusion  The way in which the Sun produces energy ---- nuclei combine  Nuclear Fission  When the nuclei split

5. The Structure of the Earth

6. Earth’s Insides  In three main parts: The Crust The Mantle The Core  Based on the composition of each part.

8. The Crust  Thin rocky outer layer  Two parts: Oceanic Crust – younger rocks Continental Crust – older rocks

9. The Mantle  82% of Earth ’ s volume is found here.  Solid, rocky shell  A change in the rock types

10. The “Extra” Layers  Lithosphere: A strong layer under the upper mantle.  Asthenosphere: A soft layer, weak under the lithosphere.

11. Earth’s “Extra” Layers  Lower Mantle: A rigid layer, top of this layer rocks are solid bottom of the layer rocks are liquid.

12. The Core  Made up of two parts: Inner Core: Solid layer (pressure) Outer Core: Liquid layer

13. The Cores  Inner Core: The materials are pressed into a solid because of the pressure  Outer Core: Liquid due to the extreme heat.

14. Discovering the layers  A scientist discovered that seismic waves happen under the surface in different layers.  Earthquake waves can travel around the world in different layers of the Earth

15. Things to know about Earthquakes

16. 2 parts  Focus: Point within the Earth where the Earthquake starts.  Epicenter: On the surface above the epicenter.

17. Where do Earthquakes occur? Faults

18. How do they happen? Plate Tectonics

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20. 2 types of shocks  Aftershock: Follows a major earthquake (could be smaller)  Foreshock: Before an earthquake.  Can happen years/days before an earthquake

21. How do we measure waves? Seismograph

22. 2 types of waves  Surface Wave: Travel along the Earth ’ s surface  Body Waves: P wave: push/pull wave through rocks (1 st ) S Wave: shake particles at right angles (2 nd )

23. P and S waves

24. Finding the Center of the Earthquake  Use three seismic stations to find the center  Use a distance – time graph

25. What we measure  Intensity: Amount of shaking  Magnitude: size/amount of energy released

26. The scale  Richter Scale: Based on the amplitude of the largest wave.  The old way  Moment of Magnitude: Amount of displacement from the fault  The new way

27. Types of Destruction  1.) Seismic Vibrations – damage to buildings/amount intensity  2.) Tsunamis  3.) Landslides  4.) Fires

28. Predicating Earthquakes  Short Range: Measures strain, not very successful  Long Range: Helps with building codes, can ’ t really understand  Seismic Graphs: Not a lot of activity along a fault line.

29. Plate Tectonics Continental Drift

30.  Wegner – proposed the theory of continental drift.  Continental Drift – The continents had once been joined to form a single supercontinent.  Pangaea!!!!

31. Evidence  The continental puzzle  Matching Fossils  Rock Types and Structures  Ancient Climates

33. A New Theory  Wegner ’ s theory was rejected.  Plate Tectonics – based on earthquake knowledge.

34. Plate Tectonics Plate Boundaries and Major Plates

35. Earth’s Major Plates  The lithosphere is divided into plates  Earth ’ s Plates – move and continually change shape and size.

36. Types of Plate Boundaries  Divergent Boundaries – Two plates move apart.  Convergent Boundaries – Two plates move together.  Transform Fault – two plates grind together.

38. Types of Faults  Normal Fault  Reverse Fault/Thrust Fault  Strike-Slip Fault

40. Actions at Plate Boundaries

41. Divergent Boundaries  Oceanic Ridge – Create an oceanic ridge – wide not narrow Rift Valleys – deep faulted structures  Seafloor Spreading: Plate tectonics produce new oceanic lithosphere. 5 cm per year.  Continental Rifts: East African rift valley

42. Convergent Boundaries  Subduction Zone – Oceanic crust is being pushed down into the mantle.  Oceanic – Continental = Continental plate remains floating.  Oceanic – Oceanic  Continental – Continental

43. Convergent Boundaries  Oceanic- Continental Oceanic - Oceanic Continental – Continental

44. Transform Fault Boundaries  Plates grind past each other without destroying the lithosphere.

45. Volcanoes

46. Mt. Saint Helens Eruption May 18, 1980

47. Factors Affecting Eruptions  Primary Factors: Magma composition Magma Temperature Amount of dissolved gases. Viscosity – the substances resistance to flow

48. Volcanic Material  Lava Flows  Gases  Pryoclastic Materials

49. Types of Volcanoes  Three main types: Shield Volcanoes Cinder Cones Composite Cones

50. Inside A Volcano

51. Other Volcanic Landforms  Claderas – a large depression in a volcano  Necks & Pipes – How magma gets through the volcano  Lava Plateaus

53. Soil and Weathering

54. Mechanical vs. Chemical Weathering  Occurs when physical forces break down rocks.  Three process: 1.) Frost Wedging 2.) Unloading 3.) Biological Activity  Transformation of a rock from one form to another  Water: A major factor!  Each type of material has a different rate of weathering.

55. Mechanical Weathering

56. Chemical Weathering

57. Rate of Weathering  Three factors are: 1.) Rock Characteristics: the physical way a rock looks 2.) Climate: Temperature and moisture 3.) Differential Weathering: Different parts of rock mass weather at different rates.

58. Just a little soil information  An important product of weathering  Supports growth of plants  Four major components: 1.) Mineral Matter: about 45% of the matter in soil 2.) Organic Matter: 5% (decayed things) 3.) Water: 25% water 4.) Air: 25% air

59. The Soil Profile  Soil varies in texture, composition, structure, and color at different levels. A Horizon – Topsoil B Horizon – Subsoil C Horizon – Bottom true to the parent material.

60. Soil Erosion  Water helps to remove the topsoil that we need to grow plants and trees.  Rates of Erosion: More plants, grass, and trees helps to hold the soil in place. Human activity that removes these things help to speed up erosion.

61. Mass Movement

62. What is it?  The transfer of rock and soil down slope due to gravity.  Caused by weathering and erosion.

63. Triggers of Mass Movement WaterSaturating Surfaces creating mudflows Oversteepened SlopesWater cuts under the bank of a river. Removal of VegetationTaking away plants and roots EarthquakesShake lose soil creating a landslide

64. Types of Mass Movement  Based on the kind of material, how it moves, the speed of the movement.  Rockfall – When rocks fall from a steep slope.  Slides – When land sides down suddenly. High mountain areas.

67. More types  Slumps – downward movement of a block of material in a curved surface.  Creep – the slowest form of movement.  Flows – mass amounts of movement 2 types:  1.) Mudflow – Moves quickly  2.) Earthflow – Moves slowly

69. All about Rocks

70. Random Rock Facts  Rocks contain clues that tell us about the environment that they were formed in. Example:  Rock with shells formed in a shallow ocean environment.  Volcanic rock formed near a volcano

71. Rocks  A solid mass of mineral or mineral – like matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet.  Three types: Igneous, Metamorphic, Sedimentary

72. The Rock Cycle  Interactions between Earth ’ s water, air, land, and living things can cause rocks to change from one type to another.

74. Igneous Rocks  Things to know: Magma: Under the Earth ’ s surface. Lava: Magma that reaches the Earth ’ s surface.  When magma cools and hardens beneath the surface or a volcanic eruption.

75. Igneous Rocks  Coarse Grained vs. Fine Grained  Glassy Texture vs. Porphyritic  Granite Comp vs. Basaltic Comp

76. Sedimentary Rocks  Weathering – a process where rocks are chemically and physically broken down.  Sediments are compacted and cemented together.

77. Sedimentary Rocks  Compaction and Cementation  Clastic and Chemical

78. Ripple Marks show where a river was. Jellyfish fossil in sedimentary rocks

79. Metamorphic Rocks  Bury sedimentary rocks deep within the Earth.  Increase pressure and temperature.  Change into Metamorphic Rocks

80. Metamorphic Rocks  Contact and Regional  Foliated and Nonfoliated

81. Energy to rock the Rock Cycle  Process are: From Earth ’ s interior – heat (igneous and metamorphic) From Earth ’ s exterior – sun, weathering, movement or materials (sedimentary)