1. Chapter 2 Stage Theories of Development Viewing recommendations for Windows: Use the Arial TrueType font and set your screen area to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Colors set to Hi Color (16 bit). Viewing recommendations for Macintosh: Use the Arial TrueType font and set your monitor resolution to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Color Depth set to thousands of colors.

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–2 Overview Erikson: Psychosocial development Piaget: Cognitive development Vygotsky: Cognitive development Using technology to promote cognitive development Piaget, Kohlberg, & Gilligan: Moral development

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–3 Erikson: Basic principles Epigenetic principle –Idea that development progresses through a series of interrelated stages and that each stage has a critical period of development Psychosocial crisis –Turning points; conflict between opposing psychological qualities

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–4 Erikson: Stages of psychosocial development Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year) Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years) Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years) Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years)

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–5 Erikson: Stages of psychosocial development (cont’d) Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years) Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–6 Marcia: Identity statuses Diffusion –No crisis; no commitment; little self- direction, impulsive, and low self-esteem Foreclosure –No crisis; commitment made; close-minded and accepts and endorses parental choices and values

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–7 Marcia: Identity statuses (cont’d) Moratorium –Crisis experienced; no commitment; anxious, changes major often, and often dissatisfied Achievement –Crisis experienced; commitment made; introspective, planful, logical, and high self- esteem

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–8 Achievement Commitment YesNo Crisis Yes No Moratorium ForeclosureDiffusion Marcia: Identity statuses chart

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–9 Erikson: Criticisms Vague and difficult to test Based on personal and subjective interpretations Reflect the personality development of males more than females Early stages seem to stress the same basic qualities

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–10 Piaget: Basic concepts Scheme –Organized pattern of behavior or thought Organization –Tendency to coherently systematize and combine processes into general systems

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–11 Piaget: Basic concepts (cont’d) Adaptation –Process of creating a good fit between one’s conception of reality and one’s experiences Equilibration –Tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–12 Piaget: Basic concepts Adaptation is accomplished by: –Assimilation –Interpreting an experience by fitting into an existing scheme –Accommodation –Interpreting an experience by changing an existing scheme to incorporate the experience

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–13 Piaget: Stages of cognitive development

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–14 Piaget: Criticisms Underestimated children’s capabilities Overestimated adolescents’ capabilities Vague explanations for cognitive growth No consideration for cultural differences

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–15 Vygotsky: Basic assumptions Thinking is influenced by one’s culture (social forces, historical forces) Psychological tools aid and change one’s thought processes Social interaction is the primary cause of cognitive development

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–16 Vygotsky: Instruction Zone of proximal development –Difference between what a child can do on his own and what can be accomplished with some assistance Scaffolding –Supporting learning during its early phases; as students become more capable of working independently, supports are withdrawn Well-designed instruction should be aimed slightly ahead of what a child knows and can do

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–17 Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–18 Using technology to promote cognitive development Technology applied to Piaget –Microworlds –Microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) –Student debates on the Internet Technology applied to Vygotsky –Cognitive apprenticeship with technology (tele-apprenticeship) –Interaction with peers as well as experts on the Internet

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–19 Piaget: Moral development Morality of constraint (moral realism) –Rules are sacred; consequences determine all guilt Morality of cooperation (moral relativism) –Rules are flexible; intent is important in determining guilt

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–20 Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma “In Europe a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later, but the druggist said “No.” The husband got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that?” (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 376).

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–21 Kohlberg: Stages of moral reasoning Level 1: Preconventional morality –Stage 1 Punishment-obedience orientation –Stage 2 Instrumental relativist orientation Level 2: Conventional morality –Stage 3 Good boy-nice girl orientation –Stage 4 Law-and-order orientation Level 3: Postconventional morality –Stage 5 Social contract orientation –Stage 6 Universal ethical principle orientation

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–22 Kohlberg: Criticisms Moral dilemmas are too removed from everyday social interactions Relied too much on the participants’ abilities to clearly explain their solutions (inability eliminated some participants) Theory does not adequately address micromoral issues Research was only done with males

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company2–23 Gilligan: Moral development Believes that females are less concerned about separation and independence and more concerned about remaining loyal through expressions of caring, understanding, and sharing experiences More likely to resolve identity vs. role confusion and intimacy vs. isolation at the same time

24. End of Chapter 2 Stage Theories of Development