2. Different Theories Regarding Human Development With regard to how humans develop through their childhood – that is, how they become socialized – different psychologists have developed different theories.  Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)  Jean Piaget (1896-1980)  Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- )  Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

3. Sigmund Freud’s 3 stages  Freud believed that human development occurs in 3 stages that reflect different levels of the personality: the id the superego the ego

4. Sigmund Freud’s 3 stages  the id = the component of the personality consisting of the basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification Newborns’ personalities are all id. Behaviour is connected directly to urges and desires (eg. wanting to be held, wanting to be fed, etc.)

5. Sigmund Freud’s 3 stages  the ego = the rational, reality-oriented component of the personality that imposes restrictions on the pleasure-seeking drives of the id The ego channels the urges of the id to make the best decisions for the person. (eg. I want that chocolate bar because it will make me feel good, but I won’t eat because I will feel better if I’m in good physical shape.)

6. Sigmund Freud’s 3 stages  the superego = the moral or ethical component of the personality This is essentially the moral conscience of the child. We first see the superego in the child as s/he recognizes the authority / control of their parents. As the child matures, s/he recognizes that the parents’ morality and values is a reflection of the morality and values of the greater society. The tension that occurs between the superego and the id is moderated by the ego. (see Figure 4.2 on p. 121)

7. Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development Cognitive development =changes over time in how a person thinks Piaget outlined 4 stages of cognitive development: 1) Sensorimotor stage (from birth to age 2) 2) Preoperational stage (age 2 to 7) 3) Concrete operational stage (age 7 to 11) 4) Formal operational stage (age 12 to adolescence)

8. Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development #1 Sensorimotor stage (from birth to age 2) During this period, children understand the world only through sensory contact and immediate action because they cannot engage in symbolic though or use language

9. Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development #2Preoperational stage (age 2 to 7) In this stage, children begin to use words as mental symbols and to form mental images. – They are still limited in their ability to use logic to solve problems or to realize that physical objects may change in shape or appearance while still retaining their physical properties.

10. Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development #3Concrete operational stage (age 7 to 11) During this stage, children think in terms of tangible objects and actual events. – They can draw conclusions about the likely physical consequences of an action without always having to try it out.

11. Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development #4Formal operational stage (age 12 to adolescence) Adolescents are able to engage in highly abstract thought and understand places, things, and events they have never seen. – They can think about the future and evaluate different options or courses of action.

12. Kohlberg and the 3 stages of moral development Kohlberg elaborated on Piaget’s studies and experimented using moral dilemmas. He classified moral reasoning into 3 sequential levels: 1)Preconventional level (age 7-10) 2)Conventional level (age 10 – adulthood) 3)Postconventional elvel (few adults reach this)

13. Kohlberg and the 3 stages of moral development #1Preconventional level (age 7-10)  Children’s perceptions are based on punishment and obedience. Evil behaviour is that which is likely to be punished Good conduct is based on avoidance of unwanted consequences.

14. Kohlberg and the 3 stages of moral development #2Conventional level (age 10 through adulthood)  At this level, individuals are most concerned with: how they are perceived by their peers and how one conforms to rules.

15. Kohlberg and the 3 stages of moral development #3Postconventional level (few adults reach this)  People view morality in terms of individuals rights Moral conduct is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend government and laws.

16. Eric Erikson  Views development as continuing throughout the life span.  Outlined eight stages of development.  Believed that each stage is accompanied by a crisis or potential crisis that involves transitions in social relationships.  See chart