1. Chapter 12 Additional Research Approaches

2. Additional Approaches in Research in HHP  Methods not as prevalent as those previously presented, but may have application in some areas of HHP Historical Epidemiological Single Participant Creative Activities

3. Historical Approach  The researcher attempts to record and understand events of the past in order to better explain present events and suggest possible future directions

4. Nature of Historical Research  Involves collection of data  Through the eyes of other people who witnessed an event or wrote about it  Why we do certain things today is based on what has happened to us in the past Need to understand the past Discovery of new data/information may lead to new interpretations

5. Sources of Historical Data  Primary sources  Secondary sources

6. Primary sources  Source is directly connected to the event of interest  Original documents or physical artifacts  People that can provide eyewitness testimony  Highest credibility and preferred data source

7. Secondary sources  Secondhand accounts of historical happenings  Hearsay evidence... person is not directly tied to event  Textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias, etc.  Considered less reliable source of data

8. Evaluating Historical Data  Historical data must be critically evaluated to determine authenticity and worth  External criticism Physical or chemical tests of documents Tests of signature, script, and handwriting Consistency of language usage  Internal criticism Assesses the meaning of the content Author’s motives Consistency with other reports of same event  Two or more independent sources are needed to verify a historical fact

9. Oral History  Oral history research is conducted through taped interviews with individuals in a position to recall various events or movements  Oral history information can be very subjective and opinionated  Strict application of external and internal criticism should be observed

10. Biographical Research  Study of the life, career, and contributions of persons of interests... often leading scholars, coaches, educators, etc.  Often based on extensive personal interviews of the person of interest supplemented with interviews of others

11. Epidemiological Approach  Descriptive epidemiology – seeking to identify patterns or trends in disease, injury, or death  Analytic epidemiology – seeking to determine causation of disease, injury, or death  Common in public health fields

12. Research Designs  Cohort studies a.k.a as prospective studies – a study that begins with a group of people (a cohort) and follows them over time  Case-control studies AKA as retrospective studies – a study comparing a group who already have a condition of interest to a group that does not  Case group – the group with the characteristic of interest (e.g., cancer)  Control group – the group without the characteristic of interest

13. Epidemiological Statistics Used to Measure Strength of an Association  Relative risk (RR)  Odds ratio (OR)  Attributable risk (AR)

14. Relative Risk (RR)  The extent to which it is more (or less) likely that a health problem or condition will occur in an exposed group compared to an unexposed group RR = 1 no relationship between exposure and condition RR > 1 positive relationship; means that those exposed are x times more likely to contract the condition RR < 1 negative relationship; means that those exposed are x times less likely to contract the condition  Applicable statistic for cohort studies

15. Odds Ratio (OR)  The most common measure of association between exposure and health outcome  An estimate of relative risk It is the odds of a health problem or condition occurring in an exposed group (case group) compared to an unexposed group (control group) Interpretation is similar to that of RR  Applicable statistic for case-control studies

16. Attributable Risk (AR)  Index of the percent of cases in the total group (unexposed group) that occur in the group with a risk factor (exposed group)  Difference between the incidence rate for the exposed group minus the incidence rate for the unexposed group divided by the incidence rate of the unexposed group  Applicable statistic for cohort studies

17. Single Participant Approach  a.k.a. “single subject research”  Research conducted on the individual level with the performance of each research participant, rather than the group, being analyzed  Behavior or performance of each participant is evaluated across time with each participant serving as their own control

18. Collection and Analysis  The basic approach is to obtain a baseline measure on the participant, administer a treatment, then obtain another measure on the participant  Comparisons are made between the baseline score and the treatment score  Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

19. Research Designs  Baseline data are collected (A) To ensure a stable measure at baseline, data may be collected on multiple occasions Graphing is useful technique to show data path  Treatment data are collected (B) A-B design A-B-A-B design (more common) Others  Nonparametric statistics

20. Creative Activities  Creative research vs. creative activity  Involves the creation or development of some art form that is considered new or unique Common in dance or fine arts Artist, painter, dancer, sculptor, musician, etc.

21. Evaluation of Creative Activity  Exhibitions or displays  Performances or recitals  Standards for evaluation Judges or critics evaluate Honors and awards received Acknowledgments Receipt of grants