1. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e Vaughn and Bos ISBN: 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. CHAPTER TWO APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND TEACHING

2. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-2 Chapter Overview This chapter highlights some of the critical features about how we learn that apply to delivering effective instruction and providing classroom management. Models and theories of learning can assist teachers in understanding and explaining how students learn.

3. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-3 Applied Behavior Analysis Manipulating Antecedents Instructional Content Classroom Schedule Classroom Rules Room Arrangement Peer Interactions

4. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-4 Applied Behavior Analysis (continued) Increasing Desirable Behaviors through Consequences Progress monitoring Reinforcement Intrinsic vs. Tangible Secondary reinforcement Shaping The Premack Principle Group contingencies Contingency contracting

5. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-5 Applied Behavior Analysis (continued) Decreasing undesirable behaviors through consequences Extinction Differential reinforcement Response cost Punishment Time-Out

6. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-6 Stages of Learning in Acquiring Proficiency in Learning First stage of learning – entry Second stage – acquisition Third stage – proficiency Fourth stage – maintenance Fifth stage – generalization Sixth stage – application

7. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-7 Cognitive Strategy Instruction Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) integrates ideas from behavioral, social, and cognitive learning theories and assumes that cognitive behavior (thinking processes), like observable behaviors, can be changed.

8. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-8 Common Features of Cognitive Strategy Instruction Strategy steps Modeling Self-regulation Verbalization Reflective thinking ** See next slide for example of how CSI is used in a resource science class to help students understand the science concepts and textbook.

9. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-9 Example of CSI Strategy steps Teacher selects the steps she wants the students to use when they read their science text. She and the students discuss the strategies they currently use and their effectiveness. They discuss the importance of improving their skills and the payoff for improvement. Modeling Teacher tells students about the steps she uses when she reads. She reads and explains what she is thinking.

10. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-10 Example of CSI (continued) Modeling (continued) Teacher talks them through the steps as the students try them. Self-regulation Verbalization Teacher gives students lots of opportunities to practice the steps when reading their textbooks, encouraging them to say the steps aloud as they work through them.

11. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-11 Example of CSI (continued) Reflective thinking Teacher provides feedback on how they are doing, and she teaches them how to evaluate their own performance.

12. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-12 Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978) is similar to cognitive strategy instruction in that it highlights the importance of modeling and the use of language to facilitate learning. However, the theory assumes that learning is socially constructed and, as a social activity, is highly influenced by the funds of knowledge that learners bring to situations. Knowledge is meaningfully constructed in these social activities. (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Moll, 1990; Tharp, Estrada, Dolton, and Yamauchi, 1999)

13. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-13 Sociocultural Theory (continued) Three concepts that are particularly important for teaching students who may have special needs or are from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds: the use of resources the social nature of learning (including the use of interactive dialogue), and the use of scaffolded instruction.

14. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-14 Schema Theory Whereas applied behavior analysis focuses on observable behaviors and views learning as establishing functional relationships between a student’s behavior and the stimuli in the environment, cognitive learning theory focuses on what happens in the mind, and views learning as changing the learner’s cognitive structure. Schemas

15. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-15 Executive Functioning or Metacognition The specific processes in the information-processing system (i.e., attention, perception, working memory, and long-term memory) are controlled or coordinated by what has been referred to as executive functioning (also referred to as metacognition).

16. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-16 Teaching Implications of Schema Theory When teaching, think about how you can modify your teaching and the learning environment to facilitate directing students’ attention to relevant stimuli and their perception of incoming information. How can you teach students to use executive functioning to coordinate the various learning and memory strategies? (See next slide for general implications.)

17. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems, 8e, Vaughn and Bos ISBN # 0137034695 © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-17 Teaching Implications of Schema Theory (continued) Provide cues to students so they can be guided to the relevant task(s) or salient features of the task. Have students study the critical feature differences between stimuli when trying to perceive differences. Have the students use the context to aid in perception. Facilitate the activation of schemas, and provide labeled experiences. Teach students how to be flexible thinkers and to solve problems, thereby encouraging them to use executive functioning.