1. Diffusion of innovation Theory and concepts

2. Diffusion of Innovation Everett Rogers (1995) defined innovation diffusion as ‘the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.’ (1995:11) The theory relies on four key concepts: innovation, communication channels, time and social systems.

3. Diffusion of innovation: the concepts Innovation: an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or unit of adoption Communication channels: the means by which individuals hear about an innovation Time: refers to how long it takes for an innovation to be accepted, taken up and implemented by an individual or organisation Social system: is the environment within which the diffusion process takes place.

4. Innovation characteristics There are five characteristics of innovations: –Relative advantage –Compatibility –Complexity –Trialability –Observability

5. Innovation characteristics Relative advantage: the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea that it supersedes. Whether the new idea is really better than the one before it is irrelevant as long as it is perceived as having more of an advantage or appeal. The advantage may be measured in terms of economic value as well as social prestige, convenience or satisfaction. Compatibility: the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters. An innovation that does not fit, or is incompatible with a group’s social system, values and mores will not be embraced as rapidly as one that is compatible.

6. Innovation characteristics Complexity: The degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. The more complex something is, or perceived to be, the slower the rate of adoption within a given social system. This is particularly true when the adopters must learn a new set of skills or knowledge (cognitive) elements. Trialability: the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. The concept of ‘Try it, you’ll like it. And if you don’t, bring it back for a full refund’ is very powerful in getting people to try new things. The more an innovation is made available to try without risk or penalty, the more likely it will be adopted. The ability to ‘bring it back’ reduces the adopter’s uncertainty about whether s/he is going to get stuck with something they don’t like, can’t use, or don’t want.

7. Innovation characteristics Observability: the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The easier it is for people to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt it. If they see it, they’ll ask the innovator about it and, by getting information, reduce the uncertainty of its potential use/adoption.

8. Innovator characteristics Many new innovations have actually been around for a long time but have been known by only a few individuals or a small group. Before an innovation ‘takes off’ and is widely adopted, a critical mass of adopters (10– 25%) must be using the innovation. An aspect of innovation research studies the difference between early and late adopters.

9. Innovator characteristics Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is earlier or later in adopting an innovation relative to other members of the system. Rogers categorised adopters into five groups: Innovators – 2.5% Early adopters – 13.5% Early majority – 34% Late majority – 34% Laggards – 16%.

10. Innovator characteristics Innovators are eager to try new ideas. They are generally are able to cope with uncertainty. They may or may not be respected by peers. Early adopters: are successful and respected by their peers. They often fill the role of opinion leaders and change agents. Early majority: think carefully before adopting a new idea, but are usually ahead of the majority. Late majority: are cautious about innovations and may only adopt them in response to economic reasons or peer pressure. Laggards: are traditionalists who strongly resist innovation. Laggards are often quite isolated in their peer group

11. Organisation characteristics Rogers discussed a number of organisation characteristics that he believed influenced the rate and success of the diffusion of an innovation.

12. Organisation characteristics CharacteristicDescriptionRelationship to innovativeness CentralisationHierarchical in power/ control Tend to be less accepting on new ideas ComplexityStaff exhibit a high level of knowledge and expertise Tend to be more innovative – but may have difficulty in reaching consensus

13. Organisation characteristics CharacteristicDescriptionRelationship to innovativeness FormalisationThe degree to which staff follow rules and procedures Less innovative but regulation improves implementation Inter- connectednes s The degree to which social systems are linked by interpersonal networks Strong networks— innovation easier to introduce

14. Organisation characteristics CharacteristicDescriptionRelationship to innovativeness Organisational slack Degree and availability of uncommitted resources The more the better for implementation SizeNumber of staff; size of budget Generally the more the better

15. Summary: issues and theory in diffusion of innovation Once the innovation has been introduced, time and timing become critical factors in the overall rate and degree of innovation adoption. For most innovations, the rate of adoption is relatively slow until a critical mass of adopters has accumulated approximately 10–25% of the total number of potential adopters. Once critical mass has been achieved, then the diffusion process rolls out rather rapidly, peaking at somewhere around 80–85% of the members. From there, the rate flattens out and sometimes fails. Dependent on the technology, it may be weeks, months or years before the cycle repeats itself. Not all innovations are adopted at the same rate within any given system or group.

16. References Everett Rogers http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_Rogers Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations (4th edn). The Free Press. New York