1. TOPIC : Different levels of Fault model UNIT 2 : Fault Modeling Module 2.1 Modeling Physical fault to logical fault

2. Why fault model? '''Fault models''' are necessary for generating and evaluating a set of test vectors. Generally, a good fault model should satisfy two criteria: 1.It should accurately reflect the behavior of defects, and 2.It should be computationally efficient in terms of fault simulation and test pattern generation.

3. Levels of abstraction in circuits Circuits can be described at various levels of abstraction in the design hierarchy. ◦ A behavioral description of a digital system is given using a hardware description language, such as VHDL or Verilog. ◦ A functional description is given at the register-transfer level (RTL). ◦ A structural description is given at the logic(gate) level. ◦ A switch-level description establishes the transistor-level details of the circuit. ◦ A geometric description is given at the layout level.

4. Levels of abstraction in circuits

5. Need of Fault models at different abstraction levels Fault modeling is the process of modeling defects at higher levels of abstraction in the design hierarchy. The advantage of using a fault model at the lowest level of abstraction is that it closely corresponds to the actual physical defects, and is thus more accurate. However, a chip made of 50 million transistors could have more than 500 million possible defects. Therefore, to reduce the number of faults and, hence, the testing burden, one can go up in the design hierarchy, and develop fault models which are perhaps less accurate, but more practical.

6. Behavioral fault models It is defined at the highest level of abstraction. They are based on the behavioral specification of the system. Behavioral fault models are associated with high-level hardware descriptions of digital designs. They are related to failure modes of the constructs in the hardware description language, such as VHDL

7. Various behavioral fault models The “for” clause of the language could fail. The “switch (Id)” clause could fail in one of the following ways: ◦ all of the specified cases are selected, ◦ none of the specified cases are selected. An “if (Y ) then {B1} else {B2}” construct could fail in one of the following ways: ◦ the set of statements {B 1 } is never executed and set {B 2 } is always executed. ◦ set {B 1 } is always executed and set {B 2 } is never executed. The “wait for S” synchronizing construct could fail such that the clause may always be executed or never be executed irrespective of the state of signal S.

8. Functional fault models Defined at the functional block level. They are geared towards making sure that the functions of the functional block are executed correctly. For example, for a block consisting of random-access memory (RAM), one type of functional fault we may want to consider is when one or more cells are written into, other cells also get written into. This type of fault is called multiple writes.

9. Functional fault models Consider a multiplexer. One can derive the following functional fault model for it. ◦ A 0 and a 1 cannot be selected on each input line. ◦ When an input is being selected, another input gets selected instead of or in addition to the correct input. Another type of functional fault model assumes that the truth table of the functional block can change in an arbitrary way. This usually leads to exhaustive testing, where, for example, for an n- input combinational circuit, all the 2n vectors need to be applied.

10. Structural fault models It assume that the structure of the circuit is known. Faults under these fault models affect the interconnections in this structure. The most well known fault model under this category is the single stuck-at fault model. This is the most widely used fault model in the industry. Detection of all single stuck-at faults results in the detection of a majority(80-85%) of realistic physical defects

11. Structural fault models The stuck-at fault (SAF) model is directly derived from these requirements. A line is said to be stuck-at 0 (SA0) or stuck-at 1 (SA1) if the line remains fixed at a low or high voltage level, respectively (assuming positive logic). If SAFs are simultaneously present on more than one line in the circuit, the faults are said to belong to the multiple SAF model.

12. Switch-level fault models Switch-level fault models are defined at the transistor level. The most prominent fault models in this category are the stuck-open and stuck-on fault models. ◦ If a transistor is permanently non-conducting due to a fault, it is considered to be stuck-open. ◦ Similarly, if a transistor is permanently conducting, it is considered to be stuck-on. These fault models are specially suited for the CMOS technology.

13. Geometric fault models It assume that the layout of the chip is known. For example, knowledge of line widths, inter- line and inter-component distances, and device geometries are used to develop these fault models. The bridging fault model thus developed leads to accurate detection of realistic defects. With shrinking geometries of very large scale integrated (VLSI) chips, this fault model will become increasingly important.

14. Geometric fault models Bridging fault models can also be defined at the structural or switch levels. For non-CMOS technologies, a Bridging Fault between two lines is assumed to result in an AND or OR function being realized on the two lines. These kinds of faults are referred to as wired-AND and wired-OR, respectively

15. Delay fault models Instead of affecting the logical behavior of the circuit, a fault may affect its temporal behavior only; such faults are called delay faults (DFs). Two types of DF models are usually used: ◦ The gate delay fault model: a circuit is said to have a gate delay fault (GDF) in some gate if an input or output of the gate has a lumped DF manifested as a slow 0 → 1 or 1 → 0 transition. ◦ The path delay fault model: a circuit is said to have a path delay fault (PDF) if there exists a path from a primary input to a primary output in it which is slow to propagate a 0 → 1 or 1 → 0 transition from its input to its output.