1. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT1 Specification and Implementation of Abstract Data Types Algebraic Techniques

2. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT2 Data Abstraction Clients –Interested in WHAT services a module provides, not HOW they are carried out. So, ignore details irrelevant to the overall behavior, for clarity. Implementors –Reserve the right to change the code, to improve performance. So, ensure that clients do not make unwarranted assumptions.

3. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT3 Abstraction : Equivalence Relations –Computability Recursive vs Non-recursive –Semantics Behavioral Equivalence –Resource-independent interchangeability Performance aspect irrelevant for “correctness” –E.g., Groups, Fields, Sorting, UNIX, etc –Algorithms Time and Space requirements –Big-Oh (Worst-case Analysis) –NP-hard vs Polynomial-time

4. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT4 Specification of Data Types Type : Values + Operations Specify Syntax Semantics Signature of Ops Meaning of Ops Model-based Axiomatic( Algebraic ) Description in terms of Give axioms satisfied standard “primitive” data types by the operations

5. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT5 Syntax of LISP S-expr operations: nil, cons, car, cdr, null signatures: nil: S-expr cons: S-expr  S-expr  S-expr car: S-expr  S-expr cdr: S-expr  S-expr null: S-expr  boolean for every atom a: a : S-expr

6. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT6 Signature tells us how to form complex terms from primitive operations. Legal nil null(cons(nil,nil)) cons(car(nil),nil) Illegal nil(cons) null(null) cons(nil)

7. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT7 Formal Spec. of ADTs Characteristics of an “Adequate” Specification –Completeness ( No undefinedness ) –Consistency/Soundness ( No conflicting definitions ) GOAL: Learn to write sound and complete algebraic(axiomatic) specifications of ADTs

8. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT8 Classification of Operations Observers (“ Queries ”) –generate a value outside the type E.g., null in ADT S-expr Constructors (“ Creators and Commands ”) –required for representing values in the type E.g., nil, cons, atoms a in ADT S-expr Non-constructors (“ Creators and Commands ”) –remaining operations E.g., car, cdr in ADT S-expr

9. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT9 ADT Table ( symbol table/directory ) empty : Table update : Key x Info x Table  Table lookUp: Key x Table  nfo lookUp(K,empty) = error (Use of variable) (Alternative : Use of Preconditions) lookUp(K,update(Ki, I, T)) = if K = Ki then I else lookUp(K,T) (“last update overrides the others”)

10. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT10 Implementations –Array-based –LinearList-based –Tree-based Binary Search Trees, AVL Trees, B-Trees etc –HashTable-based These exhibit a common Table behavior, but differ in performance aspects. Correctness of a client program is assured even when the implementation is changed.

11. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT11 A-list in LISP a : A nil : A-list cons : A x A-list  A-list car : A-list  A cdr : A-list  A-list null : A-list  boolean Observers : null, car Constructors : nil, cons Non-constructors : cdr

12. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT12 Algebraic Spec Write axioms (equations) that characterize the meaning of all the operations. Describe the meaning of the observers and the non-constructors on all possible constructor patterns. Note the use of typed variables to abbreviate the definition. (“Finite Spec.”)

13. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT13 for all S, T in S-expr cdr(nil) = error cdr(cons(S,T)) = T car(nil) = error car(cons(S,T)) = S null(nil) = true null(cons(S,T)) = false (To avoid “error”, use preconditions instead.) Other atoms “a” are handled in the same way as “nil”.

14. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT14 Natural Numbers zero :  succ :   add :  x   iszero :   boolean observers : iszero constructors : zero, succ non-constructors : add Each numbers has a unique representation in terms of its constructors.

15. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT15 for all I,J in  add(zero,I) = I add(succ(J), I) = succ(add(J,I)) iszero(zero) = true iszero(succ(n)) = false

16. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT16 A-list Revisted a : A nil : A-list list : A  A-list append : A-list x A-list  A-list null : A-list  boolean values – nil, list(a), append(nil, list(a)),...

17. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT17 Algebraic Spec constructors –nil, list, append observer isnull(nil) = true isnull(list(a)) = false isnull(append(L1,L2)) = isnull(L1) /\ isnull(L2)

18. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT18 Problem : Same value has multiple representation in terms of constructors. Solution : Add axioms for constructors. –Identity Rule append(L,nil) = L append(nil,L) = L –Associativity Rule append(append(L1,L2),L3) = append(L1, append(L2,L3))

19. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT19 Writing ADT Specs Idea: Specify “sufficient” axioms such that syntactically distinct patterns that denote the same value can be proven so. –Completeness Define non-constructors and observers on all possible constructor patterns –Consistency Check for conflicting reductions Note: A term essentially records the detailed history of construction of the value.

20. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT20 General Strategy for ADT Specs Syntax –Specify signatures and classify operations. Constructors –Write axioms to ensure that two constructor terms that represent the same value can be proven so. E.g., identity, associativity, commutativity rules.

21. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT21 Non-constructors –Provide axioms to collapse a non-constructor term into a term involving only constructors. Observers –Define the meaning of an observer on all constructor terms, checking for consistency. Implementation of a type An interpretation of the operations of the ADT that satisfies all the axioms.

22. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT22 Model-based vs Algebraic A model-based specification of a type satisfies the corresponding axiomatic specification. Hence, algebraic spec. is “more abstract” than the model-based spec. Algebraic spec captures the least common- denominator (behavior) of all possible implementations.

23. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT23 Example car( cons( X, Y) ) = X cdr( cons (X, Y) ) = Y (define ( cons x y) (lambda (m) (cond ((eq? m ’first) x) (eq? m ’second) y) ) )) ; “closure” (define ( car z) (z ’first)) (define ( cdr z) (z ’second))

24. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT24 Canonical Form for Equality Testing Identity Element Associative Op Commutative Op Idempotent Delete element Collapse tree into linear list ( parenthesis redundant ) Order list elements Remove duplicates

25. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT25 Ordered Integer Lists null : oil  boolean nil : oil hd : oil  int tl : oil  oil ins : int x oil  oil order : int_list  oil Constructors: nil, ins Non-constructors: tl, order Observers: null, hd

26. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT26 Problem: –syntactically different, but semantically equivalent constructor terms ins(2,ins(5,nil)) = ins(5,ins(2,nil)) ins(2,ins(2,nil)) = ins(2,nil) –hd should return the smallest element. for all I in int, L in oil, it is not the case that hd(ins(I,L)) = I. This holds iff I is the minimum in ins(I,L). –Similarly for tl.

27. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT27 Axioms for Constructors Idempotence –for all ordered integer lists L; for all I in int ins(I, ins(I,L)) = ins(I,L) Commutativity –for all ordered integer lists L; for all I, J in int ins(I, ins(J,L)) = ins(J, ins(I,L)) Completeness : Any permutation can be generated by exchanging adjacent elements.

28. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT28 Axioms for Non-constructors tl(nil) = error tl(ins(I,L)) = ? tl(ins(I,nil)) = nil tl(ins(I,ins(J,L))) = I ins( J, tl(ins(I,L)) ) I > J => ins( I, tl(ins(J,L)) ) I = J => tl( ins( I,L ) ) (cf. constructor axioms for duplicate elimination ) order(nil) =nil order(cons(I,L))=ins(I,order(L))

29. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT29 Axioms for Observers hd(nil) = error hd(ins(I,nil)) = I hd(ins(I,ins(J,L))) = I hd( ins(I,L) ) I > J => hd( ins(J,L) ) I = J => hd( ins(I,L) ) null(nil) = true null(cons(I,L))= false

30. ceg860 (Prasad)LADT30 Object-Oriented Software Construction Building software systems as structured collections of (possibly partial) abstract data type implementations. Function categories –Creators ( … x …  –Queries (… x T x …  …) –Commands (… x T x … 