The development of the mass media in the united states

The development of the mass media in the united states
Communication Transmitting information from one individual or group to another Mass Communication Process by which information is transmitted to a large, widely-dispersed audience Mass Media The means for communicating to these audiences Print Broadcast Internet Traditionally, the mass media has been divided into two types: print and broadcast. Print media, such as newspapers, communicate information through the publication of words and pictures on paper. Broadcast media, such as radio and television, communicate information electronically, through sounds and images. More so now than at any other time in history, the opportunities for genuine two-way flows of information between citizens and government are possible thanks to the interactivity of the Internet. mass media The means employed in mass communication; traditionally divided into print media and broadcast media. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Prominent mass media for political content . . . Newspapers Magazines Radio Television The Internet Other media for political content . . . Music Movies Motion pictures often convey intense political messages. Michael Moore’s Sicko, a 2007 Oscar-nominated documentary, was a blistering attack on the health-care system in the United States. One poll found that nearly half of Americans had either seen or heard of the movie one month after its release, and of those, nearly half said that the film made them more likely to think that health-care reform was needed. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Growth of broadcast media since 1920
Figure 6.1 The Growth of the Broadcast Media Since 1920 The media environment in the United States has changed dramatically over time. This graph shows the percentage of all households or adults using a particular media technology: radio, television, cable TV, Internet, or broadband. In 1950, for instance, only 9% of all households owned a television set. In 1995, only 14% of all adults reported using the Internet. Today around 85% of adults report using the Internet. Sources: Early data on radio, television, and cable TV came from Northwestern University’s Media Information Center. Additional data on radio households in the 1920s and 1930s are reported by Steve Craig, “How America Adopted Radio,” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 48 (June 2004): 179–195. For recent data, Pew Internet & American Life Project ( and Stanley and Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 2013–2014 (2013). Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Newspapers First newspapers: financed by political parties 1830s: Independent ownership 1880s: Most large cities had many newspapers 1960s: Radio and television competition Today: Circulation down but readership up (online) Institute paywalls By the 1960s, under pressure from both radio and television, competition among big city dailies had nearly disappeared. New York had only three papers left by 1969, a pattern repeated in every large city in the country. In order to stay in business and avoid laying off journalists, more and more newspapers are requiring readers to pay for unlimited access to the news online. Many of these so-called paywalls have been successful, like that of the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times. Other news outlets, however, have found that when they institute a paywall, readers just go elsewhere. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Magazines Can wield political power Attentive policy elites Two-step flow of communication Circulation has declined Time magazine biggest in U.S. Political magazines The National Review The Weekly Standard attentive policy elites Leaders who follow news in speciﬁc policy areas. two-step flow of communication The process in which a few policy elites gather information and then inform their more numerous followers, mobilizing them to apply pressure to government. Today, according to a revised interpretation of the two-step flow concept, policy elites are more likely to influence public opinion and other leaders by airing their views in the media. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Radio 1920s: Continuous broadcasting began NBC first radio network Edward R. Murrow Today: Nearly 15,000 licensed stations Nine out of ten Americans listen to radio every week Audience of talk radio more Republican Because the public could sense reporters’ personalities over radio in a way they could not in print, broadcast journalists quickly became household names. Edward R. Murrow, one of the most famous radio news personalities, broadcast news of the merger of Germany and Austria by short-wave radio from Vienna in 1938 and during World War II gave stirring reports of German air raids on London. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Television 1940s: 23 stations in U.S. 1951: first coast-to-coast broadcast Harry Truman’s address at Japanese peace treaty conference Kefauver’s coverage of organized crime investigation 2012: 1,300 commercial stations in U.S. 97% of households have television Three large networks with large audiences Millions of viewers moving to cable networks Democratic senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee called for television coverage of his committee’s investigation into organized crime. For weeks, people with televisions invited their neighbors to watch underworld crime figures answering questions before the camera. And Kefauver became one of the first politicians to benefit from television coverage. Previously unknown and representing a small state, he won many of the 1952 Democratic presidential primaries and became the Democrats’ vice-presidential candidate in 1956. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Watching the president on television
This close-up of John Kennedy during a debate with Richard Nixon in the 1960 campaign showed Kennedy to good advantage. In contrast, close-ups of Nixon made him look as though he needed a shave. Television revolutionized presidential politics by allowing millions of voters to look closely at the candidates’ faces and judge their personalities in the process. Kennedy won one of the closest elections in history; his good looks on television may have made the difference. Source: MPI/Stringer/Archive Photo/Getty Images MPI/Stringer/Archive Photos/Getty Images Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Laugh and learn Many people learn about politics by watching comedians like Jon Stewart, the host of The Daily Show. Almost 30 percent of adults surveyed said that they learned about the 2008 political campaign from comedy shows like The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, or Saturday Night Live. Studies show that watching The Daily Show can improve people’s ability to learn real facts about politics and current affairs. Source: Michael A. Xenos and Amy B. Becker, “Moments of Zen: Effects of The Daily Show on Information Seeking and Political Learning,” Political Communication 26 (2009): Photo: AP Photo/Jason DeCrow AP Images/Jason DeCrow Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Internet 1969: Began with ARPANET Initially used for 1991: World Wide Web Created by European physicists Fifty websites in 1993 860 million websites today Development of wireless technology Smartphones and tablets Blogs What we today call the Internet began in 1969 when, with support from the U.S. Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency, computers at four universities were linked to form ARPANET, which connected thirty-seven universities by New communications standards developed in 1983 allowed these networks to be linked, creating the Internet. blog A form of newsletter, journal, or ‘‘log’’ of thoughts for public reading, usually devoted to social or political issues and often updated daily. The term derives from weblog. Research shows the most prominent political bloggers are professional journalists from traditional news organizations and that the most popular news sites generally provide the same news in their offline and online formats. Critical Thinking Question How might the content and quality of news accessed on a mobile device differ from that of news accessed in a newspaper or on television? ? Critical Thinking Question Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Private ownership of the media
U.S. takes private ownership for granted Chinese government employs Internet police Some Western democracies’ print media privately owned, broadcast media not The Chinese government employs thousands of Internet police to prevent ‘‘subversive content’’ from being disseminated to its nearly 600 million Web users. If an Internet user in China searches for ‘‘democracy movements,’’ she is met with a screen that reads, ‘‘Page cannot be displayed.” Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Consequences of Private Ownership Private ownership results in . . . More political freedom Dependence on advertising revenues Must appeal to audience Newsworthiness Market-driven journalism Hook-and-hold approach of local television news Major broadcasters part of huge conglomerates Infotainment newsworthiness The degree to which a news story is important enough to be covered in the mass media. market-driven journalism Both reporting news and running commercials geared to a target audience. More citizens report watching local news than national news, and local news epitomizes market-driven journalism by matching audience demographics to advertising revenue while slighting news about government, policy, and public affairs. Local television newscasts across the nation practice a ‘‘hook-and-hold’’ approach. They hook viewers at the start by airing alarming stories about crime, accidents, fires, and disasters. The middle of the broadcast has informative news about business, science, and politics that are not considered good viewing. To hold viewers to the end, stations tease them by promising soft topics on pop culture, human interest, or health. As a result, local news broadcasts across the country look much the same. infotainment A mix of information and diversion oriented to personalities or celebrities, not linked to the day’s events, and usually unrelated to public affairs or policy; often called ‘‘soft news. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Ducking the Censors Pro-democracy activists in China are constantly challenged to find creative ways to evade government censors. This image of ducks in place of tanks in an iconic photo of a pro-democracy protestor was posted on China’s version of Twitter in Soon enough, however, searches for “big yellow duck” were also censored. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Getting the News: Consider the Source
Figure 6.3 Getting the News: Consider the Source An analysis of over 50,000 news stories in 2011 shows that just a few categories dominated the new: elections, the economy, government, and foreign affairs. Cable TV was particularly devoted to election coverage, while online news sites and newspapers provided the most extensive coverage of foreign affairs. In all of these media, however, the “other” category predominates, reflecting the market-driven character of news media content. Source: “A Year in the News Interactive, 2011” Pew Project for Excellent in Journalism, Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Concentration of Private Ownership Trend toward concentrated ownership NBC-Comcast merger Increases risk of a few owners controlling news flow Gannett chain owns over 80 daily newspapers Suggested that newspapers operate as nonprofits No major paper has done Concentration of ownership not a problem in television industry Research suggests that newspapers owned by publicly traded chains are more likely than other newspapers to resort to negative and positive spins on the news (as opposed to remaining neutral in tone) in order to attract more readers and thus, increase profits. While owners of privately-held papers also care about profits, they seem more willing to promote journalistic integrity, even if it might hinder the bottom line. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Government regulation of the media
Technical and Ownership Regulations Federal Radio Act of 1927 Federal Communications Act of 1934 Created Federal Communications Commission (FCC) FCC regulates interstate and international communications FCC sets social, economic, and technical goals for industry At the broadcasters’ insistence, Congress passed the Federal Radio Act (1927), which declared that the public owned the airwaves and private broadcasters could use them only by obtaining a license from the Federal Radio Commission. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) An independent federal agency that regulates interstate and international communication by radio, television, telephone, telegraph, cable, and satellite. Critical Thinking Question Which types of companies, organizations, and groups do you think are most likely to be in favor of having the FCC promote net neutrality? Which ones are most likely to oppose it? ? Critical Thinking Question Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Technical and Ownership Regulations Telecommunications Act of 1996 Relaxed ownership rules Allowed phone companies to compete and sell TV services FCC regulates Internet No jurisdiction to regulate content Emerging technologies, ownership issues, cross-platform content The 1996 law eliminated limits on the number of television stations one company may own, just as long as their coverage didn’t extend beyond 35 percent of the market nationwide. As a result, CBS, Fox, and NBC doubled or tripled the number of stations that they owned. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Regulation of Content First Amendment protects freedom of speech U.S. has freest news media in world FCC regulates content Fairness Doctrine (repealed in 1987) Equal Opportunities Rule Reasonable Access Rule The fairness doctrine obligated broadcasters to provide fair coverage of all views on public issues. The equal opportunities rule (also known as the equal time rule) required any broadcast station that gave or sold time to a candidate for a public office to make an equal amount of time available under the same conditions to all other candidates for that office. The reasonable access rule required that stations make their facilities available for the expression of conflicting views on issues by all responsible elements in the community. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Functions of the mass media for the political system
Four functions Reporting the news Interpreting the news Setting the agenda for government action Socializing citizens about politics Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

As press conferences have become more formal and scripted, they have also become less frequent. When journalists and the president had more of a collegial relationship, press conferences were common. With the exception of Bill Clinton, modern presidents are clustered at the bottom of the graph. Figure 6.4 More News = Less Talk Sources: “The Frequency of the Message is the Medium,” CQ Weekly Online 27 (July 2009): Copyright 2009 by CQ-ROLL CALL GROUP. Reproduced with permission of CQ-ROLL CALL GROUP via Copyright Clearance Center. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Reporting the News 5,000 journalists in congressional press corps Special access to president began in 1902 Theodore Roosevelt Mediated through Office of Press Secretary White House and Congressional news News releases Congressional reports Social networking C-SPAN coverage News leaks In addition to these recognized sources of news, reporters occasionally benefit from leaks of information released by officials who are guaranteed anonymity. Officials may leak news to interfere with others’ political plans or to float ideas (‘‘trial balloons’’) past the public and other political leaders to gauge their reactions. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Interpreting and Presenting the News Gatekeepers Horse race journalism Media events Where the Public Gets Its News Until early 1960s: newspapers Television dominant since 1960s Radio Internet Social networks gatekeepers Media executives, news editors, and prominent reporters who direct the flow of news. horse race journalism Election coverage by the mass media that focuses on which candidate is ahead rather than on national issues. media event A situation that is so ‘‘newsworthy’’ that the mass media are compelled to cover it. Candidates in elections often create such situations to garner media attention. Over 30 percent of people under the age of 40 report getting the news on social networks. Around 85 percent of Americans use the Internet, mostly people under the age of sixty-five and with at least a high school diploma. Whites and blacks are also more likely to be Internet users than Latinos. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Media Influence on Knowledge and Opinions Television hypothesis Soft news Can improve levels of political knowledge Can lead people to be more cynical about politics Nine out of ten Americans believe media strongly influence public opinion television hypothesis The belief that television is to blame for the low level of citizens’ knowledge about public affairs. How the media cover the news can either exacerbate or diminish socioeconomic differences in levels of political knowledge. When the news is presented with lots of expert commentary—which tends to involve jargon and complex explanations—those who are more affluent and educated learn more from news coverage than those Americans who are less well off. But when the news is presented in a more contextual fashion—which tends to focus on the historical and factual background of an issue—socioeconomic differences in political knowledge diminish. soft news General entertainment programming that often includes discussions of political affairs. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Setting the Political Agenda Media’s greatest influence is on political agenda Issues not on agenda will not get political attention Media can force government to address issues Some issues receive too much coverage Crime Politicians eager to influence media coverage Media influences public opinion by defining “the news” Going public political agenda A list of issues that need government attention. going public A strategy whereby a president seeks to inﬂuence policy elites and media coverage by appealing directly to the American people. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Socializing the Citizenry Young people acquire political values through entertainment media Criminal justice system portrayed differently on TV today TV reinforces the hegemony of existing culture and order Media plays contradictory roles Promote popular support of government Erode public confidence Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Obama Goes All In With comprehensive immigration reform stalled in Washington, President Obama went public in January 2013 by giving a speech at a majority Hispanic high school in Las Vegas. Hispanics make up an increasing share of the electorate, so reaching out them on this issue is a strategy the administration has hoped would put pressure on Republicans to start making progress on immigration reform. Jason Reed/Reuters Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Evaluating the media in government
Is Reporting Biased? News filtered through ideological bias of owners, editors, and reporters Citizens skeptical of news News reports criticized for liberal bias Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Is Reporting Biased? Newspapers tend to favor Republican candidates Congressional incumbents receive more coverage Bias depends on political party in power Citizens act as editors to judge information Newspapers can display biases too. One study found that newspapers devote more attention to high unemployment when the president’s party differs from the papers’ partisan endorsement history. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

This graph shows that the public increasingly sees the news media as inaccurate and biased, especially in the past few years. Fig. 6.5 Rising Distrust in Accuracy and Objectivity of the Press Over time, people have been asked whether news organizations generally get the facts straight or whether their stories and reports are often inaccurate. They have also been asked if they think that news organizations deal fairly with all sides or whether they tend to favor one side. The graph here shows that the public increasingly sees the news media as inaccurate and biased, especially in the past few years. Sources: “Press Widely Criticized but Trusted More than Other Information Sources: Views of the News Media: 1985–2011,” Report by Pew Research Center for People and the Press, September 22, Copyright by Pew Research Center. Reproduced by permission. Source for 2013: Pew Research Center, p. 15, Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Contributions to Democracy U.S. political communication goes from government to citizens by going through media Watchdog journalism Media reports citizens’ reactions to political events Media suggests courses of government action Majoritarian model of democracy watchdog journalism Journalism that scrutinizes public and business institutions and publicizes perceived misconduct. Regularly reporting about public opinion is one of the most obvious ways in which the media can tell a story to their consumers—elites and ordinary Americans alike—about what the public believes at any point in time. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Effects on Freedom, Order and Equality Media plays role in advancing equality Civil Rights movement Offers disadvantaged groups opportunity to state their case Journalists resist government infringement on freedom of press to promote order Sensational journalism Weakens public trust The media’s ability to report whatever they wish and whenever they wish certainly erodes efforts to maintain order. For example, sensational media coverage of terrorist acts gives terrorists the publicity they seek, and portrayals of violence on television can encourage copycat crimes. In 2013, government officials criticized media reports about leaked information regarding surveillance programs run by the National Security Agency, charging that coverage of their complex monitoring programs would weaken public and international trust and threaten national security. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

video discussion questions
What is your major source of political information? Do you follow any political figures on social networking sites? Why do members of Congress use social media to communicate with voters instead of relying on traditional media? Is the traditional press conference still effective? What are its advantages and disadvantages? Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

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