1. The Policy-Making Process

2. The Policymaking Process Every policy has a unique history, but each generally goes through five basic steps. 1. Agenda Setting 2. Policy Formulation 3. Policy Adoption 4. Policy Implementation 5. Policy Evaluation

3. Setting the Agenda “Agenda building may occur as the result of a crisis, a technological change, a mass media campaign, as well as through the efforts of a strong political personality or lobby groups.” Most important decision affecting policy-making is deciding what belongs on the political agenda -Shared beliefs determine what is legitimate. -Legitimacy affect by: Shared political values Weight of custom and tradition Impact of events (war, depressions) Changes in ways political elites think about politics

4. The Legitimate Scope of Government Action Always gets larger (nothing is illegitimate today) May be enlarged without public demand even when conditions improving Groups: a motivating force in adding new issues May be organized (corporations) or disorganized (urban minorities) May react to sense of relative deprivation – people’s feeling that they are worse off than they expected (example – riots of the 1960s) May produce an expansion of government agenda (example – new commissions and laws) May change the values and beliefs of others (example – white response to urban riots)

5. Institutions: a second force adding new issues to agenda Courts- favorite method (don’t need popular support) Make decisions that force action by other branches: school desegregation, abortion. They can change the political agenda Bureaucracy -Source of political innovation due to size and expertise Thinks up problems to solve Forms alliances with senators and their staffs Senate Contrary to the intent of the Framers – a major source of change Media Help place issues on political agenda. Publicizes those issues raised by others, such as safety standards proposed by Senate The Legitimate Scope of Government Action

6. Action by the states Sometimes laws are pioneered in states Lawsuits in states can have national effect (Tobacco) Evolution of political agenda Changes in popular attitudes- gradual change Critical events- spur rapid change Elite attitudes and Govt actions- interdependent change, sometimes volatile

7. Making a Decision Nature of issue Affects politicking Affects intensity of political conflict Costs and benefits of proposed policy a way to understand how issue affects political power Cost: any burden, monetary or nonmonetary Benefit: any satisfaction, monetary or nonmonetary Two aspects of costs and benefits important: Perception affects politics People consider whether it is legitimate for a group to benefit

8. Making a Decision Politics a process of settling disputes about who benefits and who ought to benefit People prefer programs that provide benefits at low cost Perceived distribution of costs and benefits shapes the kinds of political coalitions that form but not who wins

9. Four Points of Public Policy Majoritarian Politics: a policy in which almost everybody benefits and almost everybody pays. Distributed Benefits, Distributed Costs Gives benefits to large numbers Distributes costs to large numbers Initial debate in ideological or costs terms (for example, military budget)

10. Four Points of Public Policy Interest Group Politics: A policy in which one small group benefits and another small group pays Concentrated Benefits, Concentrated Costs Gives benefits to relatively small group Costs imposed on another small group Debate carried on by interest groups (ex. labor unions versus businesses) Public often uninformed

11. Four Points of Public Policy Client Politics: a policy in which one small group benefits and almost everybody pays. Concentrated Benefits, Distributed Costs Relatively small group benefits; group has incentive to organize Costs distributed widely Most people unaware of costs, sometimes in form of pork barrel projects o Pork-barrel legislation = legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning votes in return. o Logrolling = a legislator supports a proposal favored by another in return for support of his or hers.

12. Four Points of Public Policy Entrepreneurial Politics: a policy in which almost everybody benefits and a small group pays the cost. Distributed Benefits, Concentrated Costs Gives benefits to large numbers Costs imposed on small group Success may depend on people who work on behalf of unorganized majorities (Ex. Ralph Nader “consumer advocate”) Legitimacy of client claims is important Ex. Superfund sites

13. Types of Policy Politics: Breakdown CostsBenefits MajoritarianLarge group Interest GroupSmall GroupSmall group ClientLarge groupSmall group EntrepreneurialSmall groupLarge group

14. The Case of Business Regulation Which is true? Large corporations threaten popular rule Politics is threat to market economy All four types of politics have had a unique history leading to policies impacting various groups of people. = Meat Inspection Act of 1906

15. Majoritarian Politics Anti-trust legislation in the 1890’s Public opinion strongly against monopolies (“trusts”) but was unfocused (no single target, no specific legislation) Anti-trust laws strengthened in 20 th century Enforcement based on broad philosophies rather than interest groups

16. Interest Group Politics Labor-Management Conflict 1935 unions sought govt protection of their rights Govt passed the Wagner Act created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) 1947 Taft-Hartley Act- made certain union practices illegal, pres could block a strike if it effected “national health or safety” 1959 Landrum Griffin Act- more restrictions…another win for business Politics of Conflict Highly publicized struggle Winners/losers determined by partisan Congress

17. Client Politics Agency capture: when an agency charged with regulating becomes too closely tied to the firm it’s supposed to regulate Very likely in Client Politics! The agency has been created to serve the interests of a particular group But, regulation aren’t always a burden…sometimes they are a benefit Ex. Laws regulate practice of law and medicine Prevents fraud, malpractice, safety issues and restricts entrance into the occupation. Great for everyone! Little public opposition because: Public not aware People believe regulations protect them Costs are not always obvious or not big enough to make anyone care Client Politics for special interests is declining

18. Entrepreneurial Politics Caused by policy entrepreneur dramatizing issue, gaining public opinion and mobilizing Congressional support Sometimes that person is in govt, sometimes a private citizen (but they will need support from someone within) Crisis or scandal helps (or simply public fear of it) Debate on issue usually is extreme and moralistic “Do you want you kids to get cancer??” Great risk is that the agency will be “captured” and regulations not enforced (Ex. FDA and pharmaceutical companies) Newer agencies less vulnerable because: Standards specific, timetables strict Usually regulate many different industries, no unified opposition Public interest lobbies and media keep the agency honest

19. Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values Problem of definition Costs and benefits not completely defined in money terms Cost/benefit a matter of perception Political conflict largely a struggle to make one set of beliefs about costs and benefits prevail over another Types of arguments “Here-and-now” argument- tendency to discount the future Cost argument-tendency to react more to what you will lose rather than gain

20. Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values The role of values: our concept of what is good for our community or our country Emphasis on self-interest Deregulation- end of govt-imposed regulations Ex: airline fares, long-distance telephone rates, trucking A challenge to “iron triangles” and client politics Explanation: the power of ideas (why regulate competitive industries?) Presidents since Ford have continued the trend by reviewing regulations Many groups oppose deregulation- look at means not end Process regulation- improve consumer, worker, or environ. conditions

21. Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values Limits Some clients are just too powerful, for example, dairy farmers, agricultural supports But trend is toward weaker client politics