1. LISP Data Types Functional Programming Academic Year 2005-2006 Alessandro Cimatti cimatti@itc.it

2. LISP: basic data types Everything is a symbolic expression Symbolic expressions can be –Atoms Numbers Symbols –Lists Atom: a sequence of characters beginning with a letter, digit or special character other than “(“ or “)”. –numbers, variable names, etc. –Examples 2, 30, fibo, this-is-an-atom

3. Recognizers > (atom 'a) T > (atom 12) T >(atom '(12 23)) NIL > (numberp 'a) NIL > (numberp 12) T > (symbolp 'a) T > (symbolp 12) NIL

4. Basic Math Predicates: –(zerop number ) –(plusp number ) –(oddp integer ) –(evenp integer ) –(integerp atom ) –(floatp atom): returns true if the argument is zero/positive number/etc.; nil, otherwise. Comparison: –(= number more-numbers ) –(/= number more-numbers ) –(< number more-numbers ) –(> number more-numbers ) –(<= number more-numbers ) –(>= number more-numbers ) –(<= 1 3 5 7)  T; (< 1 3 3 5)  Nil;

5. Basic Math Arithmetic Operations: –(+ numbers ) –(- number rest-numbers ) –(* numbers ) –(/ number rest-numbers ) –(1+ number ) –(1- number ) Examples –(1+ 24)  25 –(1- 24)  23 –(+ 2 5 6)  13 –(+ ) = 0 –(/ 3 4 5)  3/20 –(/ -3) = -1/3 –(* )  1 –(+ (* 2 3) (/ 2 5))  32/5

6. More Math (max 1 2 3 4 5)  5 (min 1 2 3 -4)  -4 (exp number ) = e number (expt base power) = base power –(exp 2)  7.389 –(expt 2 3)  2 3 = 8; (log number optional base ) = log base number ; –(log 8 2)  3; (log 3)  1.09; (abs number ) –(abs -5)  5 (signum number ) returns -1, 0 or 1 if the number is negative, zero or positive, respectively (sqrt number); (isqrt number) returns the greater inter less than equal to the exact positive square-root of the number (round number ) (floor number ) (ceiling number ) (truncate number )

7. Symbolic Expressions Everything is an S-expression (Symbolic- expression). S-expression = ATOM | LIST List: –a collection of S-expression enclosed by parentheses –a sequence of items. –Examples (1 apple 200 3.14), ((peach (orange)) 3.14 (apricot) apple) –List is treated as function calls first item as the name of a function. –Example ( append ’(a b) ’(c d))  (a b c d)

8. NIL NIL is a special S-expression It is both an atom and a list. It represents the empty list –can also be written as () It represents falsity –anything else is considered to be true –T is the default value used for true Examples (not nil) = t (not t) = nil (not ‘p) = nil (and ‘p ‘q nil ‘r) = nil (and ‘p ‘q ‘r) = r

9. The List ADT A list is either –The empty list () or –The list obtained by adding an element to a list The Abstract Data type: –() : -> –cons : x -> –first : -> –rest : ->

10. Lists: examples The empty list –NIL, also written ( ) One element lists –(a) –(1) –((a)) –(()) Two element lists –(a 1) –(a b) –(a (1))

11. Operators atom : returns true if the argument is an atom; nil otherwise. –(atom ’(a b))  nil –(atom ’a)  T null : returns true if the argument is nil, nil otherwise. –(null ’(a b))  nil; (null ’a)  nil –(null ’())  T first, rest: –(first ’(a b))  a –(rest ’(a b))  (b) second, third,.., nth: –(second ’(a b))  b –(nth 3 ’(a b c d))  c

12. On Quoting Lists are treated as function calls When given a list, the interpreter attempts to evaluate the 1 st term as the name of a function The other terms are evaluated using the previously given rules, the results of their evaluations are passed as parameters. The quote operator prevents the interpreter from trying to evaluate an s-expression. > (setq a 5) 5 > (+ 6 (* 3 a)) 21 > (list (quote (+ 2 a)) 1 3) ((+ 2 a) 1 3) > (list ‘(+ 2 a) 1 3) ((+ 2 a) 1 3)

13. Eval Quote returns an atom or a list preventing its evaluation. > (setq a ‘b) b > (setq b ‘c) c Eval: is the inverse of the quote operator > (+ 3 6) 9 > (eval ’(+ 3 6)) 9 > (eval ’a) b > (eval a) c > (eval ’b) c > (eval b) Error: the variable c is unbound

14. Operators length : number of elements in a list –(length ’(a b c))  3 cons: append an atom and a list –(cons ’a ’(b c d))  (a b c d) –(cons ’(a) ’(b c d))  ((a) b c d) first: return the first element of a list –(first ’(a b c))  a rest: return the list without the first element –(rest ’(a b c))  (b c) basic properties –(first (cons x y)) = x –(rest (cons x y)) = y

15. Operators list : creates a list out of atoms and lists –(list ’a ’b ’c)  (a b c) –(list ’a ’((b) c))  (a ((b) c)) –(list ’a ’(1 2) ’((b c) (3 4)))  (a (1 2) ((b c)(3 4))) –(list 1 2 (* 3 4))  (1 2 12) (* 3 4) gets evaluated!

16. Basics: list append : append two lists > (append ’(a b) ’(c d)) (a b c d) > (append ’(a b) ’(a b) ’(c d)) (a b a b c d) > (append ’(a b) ’() ’(c d)) (a b c d) > (append ’() ’() ’()) ()

17. Basics: list member : takes two arguments to search for and a list to search for it in, then returns the item if it finds it and everything after it in the list > (member 3 ’((1 2) 3 4 5)) (3 4 5) > (member 2 ’((1 2) 3 4 5) nil

18. Binding You can bind variable anywhere in a program with the let or let* special forms to create a local context. –let and let*: lexical scope (local context) (let ( ) ) (let ((a 20) b (c 30)) ) –With let*, values from previous variables can be used to define new value. (let* ((a 20) (b (* 2 a)) c) ) –Examples > (let ((a 2)) (+ a 1)) 3 > (let ((a 2) (b 4) (c 0)) (* a b)) 8 > (setq c 3) 3 > (let ((c 5)) c) 5 > c 3

19. Lexical scope Return value according to the lexical scope where it’s defined. > (setq reg 5) 5 > (defun check-reg () reg) CHECK-REG > (check-reg) 5 > (let ((reg 6)) (check-reg)) 5

20. Dynamic scope Defvar can be used to define a special variable that is dynamically scoped. > (defvar *sp* 3) *sp* > (defun check-sp () *sp*) CHECK-SP > (check-sp) 3 > (let ((*sp* 4)) (check-sp)) 4 > *sp* 3 > (let ((x 23)) (check-sp)) 3

21. Conditional Predicates Predicates –Returns either T or Nil. –numberp, listp, symbolp, zerop, etc. –atom: test if an s-expression is an atom. –null :tests for nil. –equal: test if the values are the same. –eq: test if the memory locations are the same. –typep :takes two parameters of an element to test and a type to test it for e.g.) (typep 6 ’number) –Logical operators : and, or, not Nil or the empty list is considered to be false, everything else is true. (and 1 2)  2 (and () 2)  nil

22. Control structure if statement –(if condition Body1-when-true Body2-when-false) > (if (< 3 5) (+ 2 3) (* 2 3)) 5 cond statement –(cond ((testp1) body1) ((testp2) body2).... (t (default-body)) > (cond ((> 1 2) (+ 2 3)) ((< 2 3) (* 2 3)) (t 10)) 6

23. Length (defun length (l) (if (null l) 0 (+ 1 (length (rest l))))) length > (length ‘(a b c)) (+ 1 (length ‘(b c))) (+ 1 (+ 1 (length ‘(c)))) (+ 1 (+ 1 (+ 1 (length ‘())))) (+ 1 (+ 1 (+ 1 0))... (+ 1 2) 3

24. Iterative Length > (defun length (l) (length-iter l 0)) length > (defun length-iter (l cnt) (if (null l) cnt (length-iter (rest l) (+ 1 cnt))) length-iter > (length ‘(a b c)) (length-iter ‘(a b c) 0) (length-iter ‘(b c) 1) (length-iter ‘(c) 2) (length-iter ‘() 3) 3

25. Append (defun append (l1 l2) (if (null l1) l2 (cons (first l1) (append (rest l1) l2)))))

26. Running Append > (append ‘(1 2) ‘(3 4 5)) (cons 1 (append ‘(2) ‘(3 4 5))) (cons 1 (cons 2 (append ‘() ‘(3 4 5))) (cons 1 (cons 2 ‘(3 4 5))) (cons 1 ‘(2 3 4 5)) (1 2 3 4 5)

27. Reverse (defun reverse (l) (if (null l) l (append (reverse (rest l)) (list (first l)))))

28. Running reverse > (reverse ‘(a b c)) (append (reverse ‘(b c)) ‘(a)) (append (append (reverse ‘(c)) ‘(b)) ‘(a)) (append (append (append () ‘(c)) ‘(b)) ‘(a)) (append (append ‘(c) ‘(b)) ‘(a)) (append (cons ‘c ‘(b)) ‘(a)) (append ‘(c b) ‘(a)) (cons ‘c (append ‘(b) ‘(a))) (cons ‘c (cons ‘b ‘(a))) (cons ‘c ‘(b a)) (c b a) ; Notice something wrong? ; We traverse the lists too many times!!!

29. Iteration vs Linear Recursion We have seen this happen with numbers The return value of the caller function is the return value of the called function No need to “wait on stack” for called function to return Iteration can be optimized during compilation

30. Reverse Iterative (defun reverse (l) (reverse-iter l ())) (defun reverse-iter (l acc) (if (null l) acc (reverse-iter (rest l) (cons (first l) acc)))) (reverse-iter ‘(a b c) nil) (reverse-iter ‘(b c) (cons ‘a nil)) (reverse-iter ‘(c) (cons ‘b ‘(a))) (reverse-iter ‘() (cons ‘c ‘(b a))) ‘(c b a)

31. Append Iterative (defun append (l1 l2) (append-iter l1 l2 ())) (defun append-iter (l1 l2 acc) (if (null l1) (if (null acc) l2 (append-iter l1 (cons (first acc) l2) (rest acc)) (append-iter (rest l1) l2 (cons (first l1) acc))))) > (append-iter ‘(a b) ‘(c d e) ‘()) (append-iter ‘(b) ‘(c d e) ‘(a)) (append-iter ‘() ‘(c d e) ‘(b a)) (append-iter ‘() ‘(b c d e) ‘(a)) (append-iter ‘() ‘(a b c d e) ‘()) (a b c d e)

32. The Cons ADT A cons is either –The empty list () Or –The list obtained by consing two elements The Abstract Data Type: – : -> –cons : x -> –car : -> –cdr : -> Basic properties –(car (cons x y)) = x –(cdr (cons x y)) = y Compare with lists: the second element of the last cons of a list is always nil > (cons 1 2) (1. 2) > (list 1 2) (1 2) > (cons 1 (cons 2 nil)) (1 2)

33. Conses cons: takes two s-expressions and returns a list whose car is the 1 st item and whose cdr is the 2 nd item. i.e. insert the 1 st item into the list of 2 nd item. –(cons ’a ’(b c))  (a b c) –(cons ’(a) ’(b c))  ((a) b c) car : returns 1 st element (atom or list) –(car ’(a (b d)))  a –(car ’((a b) c))  (a b) cdr : returns the rest of a list except the 1 st element of a list –(cdr ’(a (b c)))  ((b c)) –(cadr ’((a b) c))  (c) Combinations are possible: cXXXXr where X=(a|r) –(cadr ’(a (b c))) == (car (cdr ’(a (b c))))  (b c)

34. Dot notation A dot is used to represents a cons with infix notation The printer will try to avoid printing dots explicitly turning them into list notation: > ’(1. 2) (1. 2) > ’(1. nil) (1) > ’(1. (2. 3)) ’(1 2. 3) > ’((1. 2). (3. 4)) ’((1. 2) 3. 4)

35. Counting the atoms > (defun cnt-atom (l) (cond ((null l) 0) ; nil ((atom l) 1) ; not a cons (t (+ (cnt-atom (car l)) (cnt-atom (cdr l)) ) ) ) ) cnt-atom > (cnt-atom '(a (b c) d (e f (g h)))) 8 > (cnt-atom '(a (b. c) d (e f (g. h)))) 8

36. Flattening a tree (defun flat (x) (cond ((null x) x) ((atom x) (list x)) (t (append (flat (car x)) (flat (cdr x)))))) f >(flat '(1 2 3 4)) (1 2 3 4) >(flat '(1 (2 3) 4)) (1 2 3 4) >(flat '(2. 3)) (2 3) >(flat '(() 1 (1 (2 4) (5. 3)))) (1 1 2 4 5 3)

37. Flattening a tree (defun flat1 (x) (cond ((atom x) (list x)) (t (append (flat1 (car x)) (flat1 (cdr x)))))) f >(flat1 '(1 2 3 4)) (1 2 3 4 NIL) >(flat1 '(1 (2 3) 4)) (1 2 3 NIL 4 NIL) >(flat1 '(2. 3)) (2 3) >(flat1 '(() 1 (1 (2 4) (5. 3)))) (NIL 1 1 2 4 NIL 5 3 NIL)

38. Flattening a tree (defun flat2 (x) (cond ((null x) x) ((atom x) (list x)) ((null (car x)) (cons nil (flat2 (cdr x)))) (t (append (flat2 (car x)) (flat2 (cdr x)))))) f >(f '(1 2 3 4)) (1 2 3 4) >(f '(1 (2 3) 4)) (1 2 3 4) >(f '(2. 3)) (2 3) >(f '(() 1 (1 (2 4) (5. 3)))) (NIL 1 1 2 4 5 3)