1. CSCI 256 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis Lecture 3 Some slides by Kevin Wayne copyright 2005, Pearson Addison Wesley all rights reserved, and some by Iker Gondra

2. Computational Tractability A major focus of algorithm design is to find efficient algorithms for computational problems. What does it mean for an algorithm to be efficient? As soon as an Analytic Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of the science. Whenever any result is sought by its aid, the question will arise - By what course of calculation can these results be arrived at by the machine in the shortest time? - Charles Babbage Charles Babbage (1864) Analytic Engine (schematic)

3. Some Initial Attempts at Defining Efficiency Proposed Definition of Efficiency (1): An algorithm is efficient if, when implemented, it runs quickly on real input instances –Where does it run? Even bad algorithms can run quickly when applied to small test cases on extremely fast processors –How is it implemented? Even good algorithms can run slowly when they are coded sloppily –What is a “real” input instance? Some instances can be much harder than others –How well, or badly, does the running time scale as problem sizes grow to unexpected levels? –We need a concrete definition that is platform-independent, instance-independent, and of predictive value with respect to increasing input sizes

4. Worst-Case Analysis Worst case running time: Obtain bound on largest possible running time of algorithm on input of a given size N –Draconian view, but hard to find effective alternative –Generally captures efficiency in practice Average case running time: Obtain bound on some averaged running time of algorithm on some random input as a function of input size N –Hard (or impossible) to accurately model real instances by random distributions –Algorithm tuned for a certain distribution may perform poorly on other inputs

5. Brute-Force Search Ok, but what is a reasonable analytical benchmark that can tell us whether a running time bound is impressive or weak? –For many non-trivial problems, there is a natural brute force search algorithm that checks every possible solution (i.e., try all possibilities, see if any one works, n! for Stable Matching (n = number of pairs of men and women) –Note that this is an intellectual cop-out; it provides us with absolutely no insight into the problem structure –Thus, a first simple guide is by comparison with brute-force search Proposed Definition of Efficiency (2): An algorithm is efficient if it achieves qualitatively better worst-case performance than brute-force search –Still vague, what is “qualitatively better performance”?

6. Polynomial Time as a Definition of Efficiency Desirable scaling property: Algorithms with polynomial run time have the property that: increasing the problem size by a constant factor increases the run time by at most a constant factor An algorithm is polynomial-time if the above scaling property holds There exists constants c > 0 and d > 0 such that on every input of size N, its running time is bounded by cN d steps.

7. Polynomial Time as a Definition of Efficiency In the above if we increase input from N to 2N then the running time is c(2N) d = c2 d N d, which is a slow down of a factor of 2 d which is a constant since d is a constant Note: for stable matching problem N the size of the input is really 2n 2, where n = number of men –Why? – well there are n men and n women and each has a preference list of size n so the size of the input N = 2n x n = 2n 2

8. Polynomial Time as a Definition of Efficiency Proposed Definition of Efficiency (3): An algorithm is efficient if it has a polynomial running time. (n 100 is polynomial and n (1 +.002(logn)) is not; generally we would be happier with the second running time; BUT: Polynomial running time as a notion of efficiency really works in practice! –Generally, polynomial time seems to capture the algorithms which are efficient in practice –Although 6.02  10 23  N 20 is technically polynomial-time, it would be useless in practice –In practice, the polynomial-time algorithms that people develop almost always have low constants and low exponents –Breaking through the exponential barrier of brute force typically exposes some crucial structure of the problem

9. Polynomial Time as a Definition of Efficiency One further reason why the mathematical formalism and the empirical evidence seem to line up well in the case of polynomial-time solvability is that the gulf between the growth rates of polynomial and exponential functions is enormous

10. Asymptotic Order of Growth We could give a very concrete statement about the running time of an algorithm on inputs of size N such as: On any input of size N, the algorithm runs for at most 1.62N 2 + 3.5N + 8 steps –Finding such a precise bound may be an exhausting activity, and more detail than we wanted anyway –Extremely detailed statements about the number of steps an algorithm executes are often meaningless. Why?

11. Why Ignore Constant Factors? Constant factors are arbitrary –Depend on the implementation –Depend on the details of the architecture being used to do the computing Determining the constant factors is tedious Determining constant factors provides little insight –A more course grained approach allows us to uncover similarities among different classes of algorithms

12. Why Emphasize Growth Rates? The algorithm with the lower growth rate will be faster for all but a finite number of cases (small inputs) Performance is most important for larger problem size As memory prices continue to fall, bigger problem sizes become feasible Improving growth rate often requires new techniques

13. Formalizing Growth Rates Let T(n) = the worst case running time for an algorithm with input of size n Upper bounds: T(n) is O(f(n)) ( say: T(n) is order f(n) or T is asymptotically upper bounded by f(n) ) if there exist constants c > 0 and n 0  0 such that for all n  n 0 we have T(n)  c · f(n) To express that an upper bound is the best possible: Lower bounds: T(n) is  (f(n)) (say: T is asymptotically lower bounded by f(n) ) if there exist constants c > 0 and n 0  0 such that for all n  n 0 we have T(n)  c · f(n)

14. Formalizing Growth Rates Tight bounds: T(n) is  (f(n)) ( say: f(n) is an asymptotically tight bound for T(n) ) if T(n) is both O(f(n)) and  (f(n)) Ex: T(n) = 32n 2 + 17n + 37 show: –T(n) is O(n 2 ), O(n 3 ),  (n 2 ),  (n), and  (n 2 ) –T(n) is not O(n), not  (n 3 ), not  (n), and not  (n 3 )

15. Growth Rates ctd –Note for n ≥ 1; c = (32 + 17 + 37) works to show O(n 2 ) –How would we do this? Try induction!!! –Note for n ≥ 1; c = 32 works to show  (n 2 ) –You should be able to show the following: –Clearly if T(n) is not O(n), it is not  (n) –Similarly, if T(n) is not  (n 3 ), it is not  (n 3 ) –If T(n) is O(n), it is O(n 2 ) –If T(n) is  (n 3 ), it is  (n 2 )

16. Properties of Asymptotic Growth Rates

17. Of course in the previous problem the definition of lim n → ∞ is the key!!! And what is that???

18. Properties of Asymptotic Growth Rates Transitivity (proved in class) –If f = O(g) and g = O(h) then f = O(h) –If f =  (g) and g =  (h) then f =  (h) –If f =  (g) and g =  (h) then f =  (h) Additivity (proved in class) –If f = O(h) and g = O(h) then f + g = O(h) –If f =  (h) and g =  (h) then f + g =  (h) –If f =  (h) and g = O(h) then f + g =  (h) –If f i = O(h) i = 1,…,k, then f 1 + f 2 + …+ f k = O(h)

19. Recall: Properties of Exponentials (a x ) y = a xy a x+y = a x a y a x - y = a x /a y

20. Recall: Properties of Logs Recall log a m = x if and only if m = a x Ex: Show log a a x = x and a log a x = x log a mn = log a m + log a n log a m/n = log a m - log a n log a m x = x log a m log a a = 1 Change of base: log a m = log a b log b m so: log a m/ log a b = log b m Here, a, b > 1; m, n, x > 0

21. Asymptotic Bounds for Some Common Functions Polynomials: a 0 + a 1 n + … + a d n d is  (n d ) if a d > 0 –Show why, even when a i < 0, for any i < n –Polynomial time: Running time is O(n d ) for some constant d independent of the input size n Logarithms: O(log a n) = O(log b n) any a, b > 0 –Show why –For every x > 0, log n = O(n x ) (x any positive number) can avoid specifying the base log grows slower than every polynomial

22. Exponentials: f(n) = r n Every exponential grows faster than every polynomial: –For every r > 1 and every d > 0, n d = O(r n ) –In contrast to the situation for logs, to say a function is exponential is somewhat sloppy: if r > s >1, it is never the case that r n =  (s n ) –But we do often say that running time is exponential without specifying the base –In general logs grow more slowly than polynomials which grow more slowly than exponentials

23. Exercise Take the following list of functions and arrange them in ascending order of growth rate. That is, if function g(n) immediately follows function f(n) in your list, then it should be the case that f(n) is O(g(n)) –f 1 (n) = 10 n –f 2 (n) = n 1/3 –f 3 (n) = n n –f 4 (n) = log 2 n –f 5 (n) = 2 n/100

24. Common Running Times: Linear Time: O(n) Linear time: Running time is at most a constant factor times the size of the input –E.g., Computing the maximum: Compute maximum of n numbers a 1, …, a n max  a 1 for i = 2 to n { if (a i > max) max  a i }

25. Common Running Times: Linear Time: O(n) –E.g., Merge: Combine two sorted lists A = a 1,a 2,…,a n with B = b 1,b 2,…,b n into sorted whole –Claim: Merging two lists of size n takes O(n) time Pf: After each comparison, the length of output list increases by 1 i = 1, j = 1 while (both lists are nonempty) { if (a i  b j ) append a i to output list and increment i else append b j to output list and increment j } append remainder of nonempty list to output list

26. Common Running Times: O(n log n) Time O(n log n) time: Arises in divide-and-conquer algorithms (we will see that this is an algorithm that splits its input in half, solves each recursively and combines the pieces in linear time) Sorting: Mergesort and heapsort are sorting algorithms that perform O(n log n) comparisons Frequently we find algorithms with running time O(n log n) because there are many algorithms where the most expensive step is to sort the input.

27. Common Running Times: Quadratic Time: O(n 2 ) Quadratic time: –E.g., Closest pair of points: Given a list of n points in the plane (x 1, y 1 ), …, (x n, y n ), find the pair that is closest –Here’s a O(n 2 ) solution: Try all pairs of points –Remark:  (n 2 ) seems inevitable but, as we will see, this is just an illusion min  (x 1 - x 2 ) 2 + (y 1 - y 2 ) 2 for i = 1 to n { for j = i+1 to n { d  (x i - x j ) 2 + (y i - y j ) 2 if (d < min) min  d }

28. Common Running Times: Cubic Time: O(n 3 ) Cubic time: E.g., Set disjointness: Given n sets S 1, …, S n each of which is a subset of 1, 2, …, n, is there some pair of these which are disjoint? –O(n 3 ) solution: For each pair of sets, determine if they are disjoint (assume that each set S i is represented in such a way that all elements of S i can be listed in constant time per element and we can also check in constant time whether a given number p belongs to S i ) foreach set S i { foreach other set S j { foreach element p of S i { determine whether p also belongs to S j } if (no element of S i belongs to S j ) report that S i and S j are disjoint }

29. Common Running Times: Polynomial Time: O(n k ) Time O(n k ) time: Occurs when we search over all subsets of size k –E.g., Independent set of size k: Given a graph, are there k nodes such that no two are joined by an edge? To do this we can enumerate all subsets of k nodes and check if each is independent –Check whether S is an independent set O(k 2 ) –Number of k element subsets –O(k 2 n k / k!) = O(n k ) foreach subset S of k nodes { check whether S in an independent set if (S is an independent set) report S is an independent set } poly-time for k=17, but not practical k is a constant

30. Common Running Times: Exponential Time Exponential time: occurs if we wish to enumerate all subsets of n-element set –E.g., Independent set: Given a graph, what is maximum size of an independent set? –O(n 2 2 n ) solution: Enumerate all subsets and determine max independent set S*   foreach subset S of nodes { check whether S in an independent set if (S is largest independent set seen so far) update S*  S }

31. Review assignment for the student This chapter also reviews priority queues and uses heap operations to implement priority queue – review these pages in text 57-65