1. LECTURE 7 This lecture aims to develop students’ speaking skills by improving students’ confidence in making suggestions in discussions helping students’ use visual aids effectively in presentations.

2. DISCUSSION SKILLS Making suggestions Academic discussions often involve proposing ways to solve problems. In this lecture we focus on the language students’ use to make suggestions and recommendations. Useful language: − making a suggestion means giving your opinion about what should be done − see the Useful language section in Unit 1. We can indicate how strong your opinion is. − three levels of advice: Suggestion (lowest level – just an idea to be considered) Advice (middle level – what you think should be done) Necessity (highest level – what you know must be done)

3. Expressions people often use to give suggestions and advice. Formal I propose (that)… I would suggest (that)… My advice would be to… I think the most effective strategy/course/procedure would be to… I believe it would be advisable to … I think it’s essential/vital/crucial/urgent/most important that… Should we consider…-ing One option would be to…

4. Neutral I think what we/you/they should do is… What I think we/you should do is… I think it would be a good/sensible idea to… I think the best way forward would be to… My feeling is we6you should… I wonder if you/we should… What do you think about the idea of…-ing? Would there be any advantage/benefit in…-ing?

5. Informal If you ask me, we/you should… What about/How about…-ing? Do you think there would be an mileage in…-ing? The main/key/most important thing is to… It might be an idea to… We/You’ve really got to…

6. PRESENTATION SKILLS Using visual aids What are visual aids? A visual aid is anything which your audience can see, and which helps them to follow your spoken presentation, and keeps their attention and interest. Types of visual aid − a large physical model of the topic being presented can be helpful − can be passed around − graphs, tables, charts, diagrams, texts or photographs, Three common types of projection are: 1. Overhead projectors and transparencies 2. Slide projectors and slides 3. PowerPoint projection, using a laptop computer and data projector

7. Language signals for visual aids signals simple: here and this/these are frequently used and effective signals. Referring to slides: language signals 1. Introducing the slide You can see here… Here you can see… If we look at this slide Here are the data from our questionnaire. These are the comparative …… rates. This slide shows the comparative…… rates. Locating a point on a slide On the left slide…On the right here… At the top…At the bottom…

8. The most common types of visual aid are tables, graphs, diagrams and text: Tables Line graphs Bar charts, or graphs Pie charts Diagrams Text

9. Analysis Whether you use a board, a flip chart, an overhead projector, slides or PP, the most common types of visual aid are tables, graphs, diagrams and text. Tables Tables must be very simple, so that the audience can immediately understand them, and then listen to your comments. If the table is too complex, they will probably concentrate on trying to interpret the table and will not hear what you are saying about it. Tables used as visual aids in presentations should have no more than four colums and six rows; and fewer is better. Line graphs Line graphs are used to show changes over time. They should also be kept simple, with one, two, or three lines. If there is more than one line, use different symbols for different lines. Bar charts, or graphs Bar charts are one of the most effective ways of presenting data visually. They have visual impact, and most people understand them more quickly than they do tables and line graphs. They are used to compare any comparable categories of data. They may run vertically or horizontally.

10. Overhead projectors and transparencies This is the simplest and cheapest form of projection, and transparencies can be quickly produced. It is therefore usually the best choice for small academic seminars. Trnasparencies can be handwritten and drawn with special coloured pens or, for a more professional appearance, they can be photocopied from printed text.

11. Slide projectors and slides For many years these have been the standard mode of projection in scientific conferences and meetings. Slides are more versatile than overhead transparencies; they can show photographs of laboratory apparatus, for example, or microscopic structures. They also have more colour impact than overhead transparancies: transparancies must always have a clear background, whereas slides may have, for example, a blue background, with white or yellow text. The disadvantage of slides is the process of making them. Some presenters can make their own, but often they have to be produced in an audio-visual department. So the process takes more time – and maybe money.

12. PowerPoint projection, using a laptop computer and data projector This mode of projection is now standard practice in all international and national scientific conferences. It is also rapidly becoming standard practice in conferences in the arts, humanities and social sciences, though overhead projection is still used, particularly for smaller or more informal workshop sessions. Although PP presentations now dominate the conference scene, not all academic departments can afford expensive data projection facilities. So slide projectors and overhead projectors still continue to be used in these settings.

13. Graphs, tables, charts, diagrams and text can, of course, be shown to the audience without projection. They can be written on the blackboard, whiteboard or filpchart. The disadvantage of these simpler procedures is that time wasted while the presenter writes, and also the feeling of contact between presenter and audience can be lost, because the presenter has to turn away from the audience in order to write. However, if there is no projection equipment available or if the electricity is unreliable, then using the board as a visual aid is much better than having no visual aid at all.

14. Effective visual aids The key to effective visual aids is to remember the two essentials. 1. Visual aids must be VISUAL. If possible, use pictures or diagrams or graphs, rather than text. Use simple clear graphs and tables, with not too many lines. Make sure it can be seen by the audience at the back of the room. If you use text, use short clear lists, with not too many words. Use large clear print. Make sure it can be read by the audience at the back of the room. The slides should be well laid out and attractive but not distractingly decorated. Each visual aid should have a title, so that the audience know what they are looking at. If you are using a graph, table or text taken from another source, remember to put the reference on your visual aid.

15. Visual aids must be AIDS. The slide should show the key points that you want to make. You will add comments while you speak, but if the audience can see your main points, this will help them to follow what you are saying. The table of data on a visual aid is likely to be different from a table of data in a published article. A table in an article should usually contain a complete set of detailed data, and the accompanying text highlights important points from the table. But in a presentation, the table is much simpler, with only key points with it, and the presenter expands on these, if necessary, when speaking. When you have finished talking about the content of a slide, don’t keep the slide showing while you talk about the next point. This distracts the audience and is not helpful. Remove it or use a new slide.

16. Pie charts Pie charts are another extremely effective visual presentation of data. Their use is more limited than that of bar charts. They show what proportions make up a whole. Each part should be differentiated by shading, cross-hatching or colour, and should be labelled horizontally. Diagrams Diagrams should be used to show processes, laboratory equipment, hierarchical categories and so on. Text When using a text as a visual aid, follow these rules Text as a visual aid a bulleted list, not sentences a separete line for each point clear simple print lower case letters, not capitals

17. SUMMARY Visual aids are an important part of a presentation because they: Focus attention on key points Help the audience to understand what you are saying Provide visual interest to balance the spoken voice To be effective, visual aids should: Be very simple and uncluttered, visually Relate to the main points you are making, not the details Be easy to read or understand at a glance.