1. 5: DataLink Layer5-1 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) CSMA: listen before transmit: If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame r If channel sensed busy, defer transmission r Human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

2. 5: DataLink Layer5-2 CSMA collisions collisions can still occur: propagation delay means two nodes may not hear each other’s transmission collision: entire packet transmission time wasted spatial layout of nodes note: role of distance & propagation delay in determining collision probability

3. 5: DataLink Layer5-3 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA m collisions detected within short time m colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage r collision detection: m easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare transmitted, received signals m difficult in wireless LANs: receiver shut off while transmitting r human analogy: the polite conversationalist

4. 5: DataLink Layer5-4 CSMA/CD collision detection

5. 5: DataLink Layer5-5 “Taking Turns” MAC protocols channel partitioning MAC protocols: m share channel efficiently and fairly at high load m inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node! Random access MAC protocols m efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel m high load: collision overhead “taking turns” protocols look for best of both worlds!

6. 5: DataLink Layer5-6 “Taking Turns” MAC protocols Polling: r master node “invites” slave nodes to transmit in turn r concerns: m polling overhead m latency m single point of failure (master) Token passing: r control token passed from one node to next sequentially. r token message r concerns: m token overhead m latency m single point of failure (token)

7. 5: DataLink Layer5-7 Summary of MAC protocols r What do you do with a shared media? m Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code Time Division, Frequency Division m Random partitioning (dynamic), ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in others (wireless) CSMA/CD used in Ethernet CSMA/CA used in 802.11 m Taking Turns polling from a central site, token passing

8. 5: DataLink Layer5-8 LAN technologies Data link layer so far: m services, error detection/correction, multiple access Next: LAN technologies m addressing m Ethernet m hubs, switches m PPP

9. 5: DataLink Layer5-9 MAC Addresses and ARP r 32-bit IP address: m network-layer address m used to get datagram to destination IP subnet r MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address: m used to get datagram from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network) m 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM

10. 5: DataLink Layer5-10 LAN Addresses and ARP Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address Broadcast address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF = adapter 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0 0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 71-65-F7-2B-08-53 LAN (wired or wireless)

11. 5: DataLink Layer5-11 LAN Address (more) r MAC address allocation administered by IEEE r manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness) r Analogy: (a) MAC address: like Social Security Number (b) IP address: like postal address  MAC flat address ➜ portability m can move LAN card from one LAN to another r IP hierarchical address NOT portable m depends on IP subnet to which node is attached

12. 5: DataLink Layer5-12 ARP: Address Resolution Protocol r Each IP node (Host, Router) on LAN has ARP table r ARP Table: IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN nodes m TTL (Time To Live): time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min) Question: how to determine MAC address of B knowing B’s IP address? 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0 0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 71-65-F7-2B-08-53 LAN 237.196.7.23 237.196.7.78 237.196.7.14 237.196.7.88

13. 5: DataLink Layer5-13 Windows ARP Table C:\Documents and Settings\mpearson>arp -a Interface: 130.217.250.71 --- 0x3 Internet Address Physical Address Type 130.217.64.2 00-12-44-1e-74-00 dynamic 130.217.240.31 00-06-5b-19-8e-55 dynamic 130.217.240.32 00-0f-1f-66-d4-26 dynamic 130.217.241.36 00-13-21-ae-d3-76 dynamic 130.217.250.15 00-07-e9-0c-52-b7 dynamic

14. 5: DataLink Layer5-14 ARP protocol: Same LAN (network) r A wants to send datagram to B, and B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table. r A broadcasts ARP query packet, containing B's IP address m Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF m all machines on LAN receive ARP query r B receives ARP packet, replies to A with its (B's) MAC address m frame sent to A’s MAC address (unicast) r A caches (saves) IP-to- MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out) m soft state: information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed r ARP is “plug-and-play”: m nodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator

15. 5: DataLink Layer5-15 Routing to another LAN walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R assume A know’s B IP address r Two ARP tables in router R, one for each IP network (LAN) r In routing table at source Host, find router 111.111.111.110 r In ARP table at source, find MAC address E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B, etc A R B

16. 5: DataLink Layer5-16 r A creates datagram with source A, destination B r A uses ARP to get R’s MAC address for 111.111.111.110 r A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest, frame contains A-to-B IP datagram r A’s adapter sends frame r R’s adapter receives frame r R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its destined to B r R uses ARP to get B’s MAC address r R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B A R B

17. 5: DataLink Layer5-17 Link Layer r 5.1 Introduction and services r 5.2 Error detection and correction r 5.3Multiple access protocols r 5.4 Link-Layer Addressing r 5.5 Ethernet r 5.6 Hubs and switches r 5.7 PPP r 5.8 Link Virtualization: ATM

18. 5: DataLink Layer5-18 Ethernet “dominant” wired LAN technology: r cheap $20 for 100Mbs! r first widely used LAN technology r Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM r Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch

19. 5: DataLink Layer5-19 Star topology r Bus topology popular through mid 90s r Now star topology prevails r Connection choices: hub or switch (more later) hub or switch

20. 5: DataLink Layer5-20 Ethernet Frame Structure Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame Preamble: r 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 r used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

21. 5: DataLink Layer5-21 Ethernet Frame Structure (more) r Addresses: 6 bytes m if adapter receives frame with matching destination address, or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet), it passes data in frame to net-layer protocol m otherwise, adapter discards frame r Type: indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk) r CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped

22. 5: DataLink Layer5-22 Unreliable, connectionless service r Connectionless: No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter. r Unreliable: receiving adapter doesn’t send acks or nacks to sending adapter m stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gaps m gaps will be filled if app is using TCP m otherwise, app will see the gaps

23. 5: DataLink Layer5-23 Ethernet uses CSMA/CD r No slots r adapter doesn’t transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting, that is, carrier sense r transmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting, that is, collision detection r Before attempting a retransmission, adapter waits a random time, that is, random access

24. 5: DataLink Layer5-24 Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm 1. Adaptor receives datagram from net layer & creates frame 2. If adapter senses channel idle, it starts to transmit frame. If it senses channel busy, waits until channel idle and then transmits 3. If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission, the adapter is done with frame ! 4. If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal 5. After aborting, adapter enters exponential backoff: after the mth collision, adapter chooses a K at random from {0,1,2,…,2 m -1}. Adapter waits K·512 bit times and returns to Step 2

25. 5: DataLink Layer5-25 Ethernet’s CSMA/CD (more) Jam Signal: make sure all other transmitters are aware of collision; 48 bits Bit time:.1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet ; for K=1023, wait time is about 50 msec Exponential Backoff: r Goal: adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load m heavy load: random wait will be longer r first collision: choose K from {0,1}; delay is K· 512 bit transmission times r after second collision: choose K from {0,1,2,3}… r after ten collisions, choose K from {0,1,2,3,4,…,1023} See/interact with Java applet on AWL Web site: highly recommended !

26. 5: DataLink Layer5-26 CSMA/CD efficiency r T prop = max prop between 2 nodes in LAN r t trans = time to transmit max-size frame r Efficiency goes to 1 as t prop goes to 0 r Goes to 1 as t trans goes to infinity r Much better than ALOHA, but still decentralized, simple, and cheap

27. 5: DataLink Layer5-27 10BaseT and 100BaseT r 10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet” r T stands for Twisted Pair r Nodes connect to a hub: “star topology”; 100 m max distance between nodes and hub twisted pair hub