1. Personality Stability vs. Situation?

2. Personality  Traits vs. States vs. Types  18,000 personality terms to 32 traits to-  Big five: Extraversion (outgoing, sociable, positive) Neuroticism (prone to negative emotions) Conscientiousness (organized, efficient, disciplined) Openness to experience (non-conventional, curious) Agreeableness (trusting & easygoing with others) 40 to 60% heritable

3. Situationism  Low correlations across situations Strong vs. weak situations But-brain differences and heritability  Introverts more sensitive to external stimuli  More reactive central nervous system  Low pain tolerance  Underactive Nor-epi system  Sensation seeking extraverts

4. Heritability: Big five correlations  Identical twins vs. fraternal twins : Identical Fraternal  Reared together-.51.23  Reared apart-.50.21

5. Personality Theories  Psychoanalytic Childhood experience, ucs influence, dynamics, conflict, defenses, development and identification  Humanistic  Focus on self & self-actualization, existential approach, flow & happiness  Social-Cognitive Theory Beliefs, thoughts & personal constructs, often acquired from social interactions, shape behavior  Behavioral Theory Learning history, self-perception theory, self- control

6. Disorders Who Gets What?

7. Defining Abnormality  Medical approach  Statistical approach  Functional approach These reflect two basic views of disorders --brain based --behavior/experience/situation based The “two worlds” of psychiatry

8. DSM-IV  Axis 1: Syndromes (Scz, Depress, etc.)  Axis 2: Retardation & Personality Disorders  Axis 3: General Medical Condition  Axis 4: Social/Environmental Problems  Axis 5: Global Assessment & Coping  Older classification (primarily of Axis 1 & 2) dichotomized: Neuroses & Psychoses  Mood (Dep. Bipolar) vs. Thought (Scz) Disrdr  Now replaced by highly elaborated DSM-V

9. Prevalence of Neurotic Disorders by Age

10. Prevalence of Neurosis by Age & Social Class

13. Prevalence of Psychosis by Age & Gender

16. Heritability of Psychosis: Schizophrenia

17. Scz incidence & poverty/residential area

18. Some Interim Conclusions  Psychoses (focus on SCZ) is a disorder of heredity and/or prenatal environment  But it’s also a disorder of poverty (and that may be bidirectional)!  Another view of prevalence and recent dramatic changes in prevalence

19. Incidence & Prevalence  Schizophrenia: approx. 1%  Bipolar Disorder: approx. 1%  Depression: approx. M 13% F 21%

20. Treatment

21. Overview  Brief History  Psychological Treatments  Biomedical Treatments  Client-Therapist Relationship  Is Treatment Effective?

22. History  Earliest history Mental illness believed to be caused by evil spirits. Hippocrates began to dismantle this. Treatments were harsh, ineffective  Drill holes in skulls to create exits for spirits  Make the body horribly uncomfortable for the spirits  Purge demons through inducing vomiting

23. History  Middle Ages Mental illness viewed more like a disease Mental institutions were created  Purpose: confine madmen  Included other social “undesirables”  Inhumane treatment (shackles and chains)

24. Beginning of Reform  Early to Mid 1800s Philippe Pinel put in charge of Paris’ hospital system  Removed shackles and chains  Patients allowed to exercise, venture outside

26. Beginning of Reform  Dorthea Dix Fought for humane treatment of patients in U.S.  19 th century Freud’s “talking cure”

27. Psychological Treatment Overview  Treatment involves addressing three major components of the illness: Biological Psychological Social  Something to keep in mind: These three major components are not necessarily black-and-white

28. Who provides treatment?  Clinical psychologists  Psychologists  Neurologists  Psychiatric Nurses  Marriage and Family Counselors  Social workers  School counselors  Clergy

29. Who seeks treatment?  People with mental illness, hoping to relieve pain and dysfunction  People with subsyndromal disorders  People looking for assistance in recovering from grief, anxiety, confusion, relationship issues… Women European Americans Financially well off People with Health Insurance!

30. Psychological Treatments  Focused on changing the way the patient thinks and behaves  Involves discussion, instruction, or training  Over 500 different forms of such treatment Psychodynamic Humanistic Behavioral Cognitive

31. Psychodynamic Approaches  Illness result of unconscious conflicts developed early in childhood  Defense mechanisms shield from the inner conflict This can lead to symptoms of mental illness  Treatment: Uncovering unconscious desires and conflicts, and resolving them Integrate thoughts and memories coherently

32. Psychodynamic Approaches  “Working through” the conflict Transference  Used as a therapeutic tool  In order to be effective, therapist must remain neutral

33. Humanistic Approaches  Based off of Freud’s “talking cure”  However, less focused on basic drives  Instead, focus on creating meaning  Clients need to take responsibility for their lives and actions, and live in the “here and now”

34. Humanistic Approaches  Client-Centered Therapy (Carl Rogers) Focuses on achieving self-acceptance Does not pass judgment, or provide instruction Aim is to create an environment in which the client feels understood and valued

35. Humanistic Approach  Creating the therapeutic environment Genuineness- sharing authentic reactions Unconditional positive regard  Non-judgmental, accepting Empathic Understanding- putting oneself in the patients’ shoes

36. Behavioral Approaches  Reaction to Freud’s psychoanalysis  Viewed Freud’s approach as too unscientific  Treatment directed at reducing or eliminating problematic behaviors (because behavior is all there is!)  Institutional control mechanism (humane)  Approach involves replacing old habits with more effective or adaptive behaviors Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, modeling

37. Behavioral Approaches Classical Conditioning Techniques  Treatment of Phobias Extinguish the association between the neutral stimulus and the fearful stimulus Exposure Therapy  Train clients in deep muscle relaxation, pair relaxation with the fearful stimulus  Create a hierarchy of progressively more frightening stimuli  Systematic desensitization: gradual exposure to the real phobic stimulus

38. Systematic Desensitization

39. Behavioral Approaches Operant Conditioning Techniques  Token economies Earn tokens for positive behaviors, which can be exchanged for prizes Shaping  Contingency Management Strict consequences for certain behaviors  Successful for shaping communicative behavior in children with autism  Modeling Techniques Therapist perceived as role model

40. Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches  Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (Albert Ellis)  People typically think that an event causes them to behave a certain way But…beliefs matter  A (acting event)  B (belief)  C (consequence) Focused therapy on changing beliefs  Teacher-like

41. Cognitive Therapy  Aaron Beck  Focused on changing dysfunctional thought  Cognitive Restructuring Challenge a person’s unhealthy beliefs or interpretations Used persuasion and confrontation Brief, problem-focused  Initially treated depression

42. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy  Followers of Ellis and Beck blended the two therapies to form CBT  Focus on addressing problems the patient wishes to solve  Intimate relationship between behavior and thought!  Often clients are assigned homework Practice new ways skills or thought techniques

43. Eclecticism  Modern therapy tends to blend aspects from many of these perspectives  Makes sense, since there are often many causes of mental illness

44. Client-Therapist Relationship  Therapeutic Alliance Support  Trust  Hope  Understanding

45. Group Therapies  Often groups are chosen because they share similar problems (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous)  Focus on the shared problems, less on the individuals’ emotions  Advantages Social support Share advice, information Observe other peoples’ successes Realize that not alone, others share similar problems

46. Couple and Family Therapy  Views the family or relationship as a complex system One person’s negative behavior or cognitions may reflect a larger issue for the entire family or relationship  Can be extended to  treating children who have little control (work with family tol change situation/mileau)

47. Biomedical Treatments The Early Gruesome Years  Trephination Allowed “evil spirits” to escape the skull  Hot or Cold Baths  Spinning

48. Biomedical Treatments Psychosurgery  Prefrontal Lobotomy Sever connections between thalamus and frontal lobes Disrupted higher cognitive functions  Modern techniques are more precise and used as a last resort treatment

49. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)  Brief electrical current passed through the brain causing a convulsive seizure  Originally developed to treat schizophrenia  Very effective for treating severe depression (70-90% effective)  Memory impairment  Mechanisms are not known

50. Different Therapies for Different Conditions (& Sometimes a Mix)  Medical: Brain targeted drug interventions examples: --SCZ: Dopamine receptor blockers (the better the block the more effective it is) --Other neurotransmitters involved as well --Depression: ex. Norepinephrine uptake or release+, Serotonin release+, & a host of other neurotransmitter controls involved -- Electro-convulsive shock therapy!

51. Pharmacological Treatments  Psychotropic drugs Not only helped treat patients, but also further understanding of the illness

54. Pharmacological Treatments  Antipsychotics Treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia Not effective for treating the negative symptoms Most common are Thorazine, Haldol and Stelazine  Block dopamine receptors in particular brain pathways  Atypical Antipsychotics Treat negative symptoms of schizophrenia, too Risperdal, Clozaril, Seroquel

55. Antipsychotics and Deinstitutionalization  Movement in the 1950s shortly after development of the first antipsychotics Aimed to provide less expensive mental health care at local community centers instead of institutions  Pros Fewer people spending their lives in institutions Shorter stays  Downside Lack of appropriate care in community settings Lack of integration into the community (support services, employment) Many mentally ill are now homeless, or in jail

56. Deinstitutionalization

57. Antidepressants  Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) Nardil  Tricyclic antidepressants Tofranil  Increase serotonin and norephinephrine for synaptic transmission  Both very effective (significant improvement in 65% of patients) Many negative side effects

58. Antidepressants  Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Celexa, Lexapro Minimally effect dopamine and norepinephrine, and maximally effect serotonin  Reduced side effects Most commonly prescribed  Atypical Antidepressants Effect serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine in various ways  Wellbutrin (fewer side effects)

59. Antidepressants  Downside Takes a while before effective (a month) Trial-and-error Side effects  Weight gain, nausea, diarrhea, insomnia, reduced sexual desire or response

60. Mood Stabilizers  Treat symptoms of bipolar disorder  Lithium carbonate Treats manic episodes as well as depressive episodes Side Effects  Weight gain, sedation, dry mouth, tremors Adherence to medication  Often patients do not wish to treat mania, only depression Lethal at high doses Effective for 60 – 70% of patients

61. Anxiolytic Medications  Treat anxiety disorders  Increase neurotransmission of GABA  Beta Blockers  Benzodiazepines  Tricyclic Antidepressants and SSRIs

62. Anxiolytic Medications  Beta Blockers Controls autonomic arousal  Benzodiazepines Valium, Xanax, Klonopin Short term treatments Highly addictive Interact dangerously with alcohol New drugs are being developed to reduce these negative side effects Rebound effect

63. Medication: Costs and Benefits  Can be highly effective  Only treats and controls the symptoms Relapse  Requires trial-and-error for correct drug and correct dosage  Side effects Reduce adherence to medication  Overprescription

65. Emerging Biomedical Treatments  Repetitive TMS Areas of the brain stimulated with magnetic coil for 20-30 minutes over several weeks Effective for medication- resistant depression No cognitive side effects  Deep Brain Stimulation Electrodes implanted in brain

66. Combined Treatments  Most therapists use a combination of treatments Drug treatments for short-term effects Therapy for long-term effects

67. Evaluating the Efficacy of Treatments  Randomized Clinical Trial (RCT) Treatment group Placebo group Random assignment Symptoms and severity similar across participants Follow participants over several months

68. Efficacy vs. Utility  Difficult to run RCT for psychotherapy Waitlist Manualized Therapy  Controlled studies allow researchers to come to conclusions about the efficacy of particular treatments  In many circumstances, patients have more than one illness  Also, therapists typically use more than one approach

69. Is therapy effective?  A meta-analysis found that 80% of patients who received treatment fared better than those without

70. Are all Therapies Equally Effective?

71. Who provides the most effective psychological treatment?  Number of years of practice? Not necessarily  Professional credentials? No  The rapport between therapist and client seems to be strongest predictor Respect, trust, comfort

72. Who is most likely to benefit from treatment?  Strong alliance with therapist Shop around!  Motivated  Optimistic  More effective with more therapy

73. Are All Treatments Equally Effective?  A depression meta-analysis shows… Drug treatment alone 55% effective Therapy alone 52% effective Drug AND therapy 85% effective! (New England Journal of Medicine, 2000)

74. Are all Treatments Equally Effective?  Treatment more effective than no treatment  Combining treatments appears most beneficial  Some therapies seem particularly effective for specific disorders Exposure therapy  phobias

75. Moral of the Story  Treatment is effective!  Modern treatments are much more effective and humane than past treatments  The relationship between therapist and client really matters!

76. Recent Reconceptualization  Some people are able to cognitively overcome even serious levels of disorders Available to psychotherapy Find meaning in some symptoms Able to live normally or quasi-normally Example in Nash film

77. If you feel you need help…  Seek it! Ask for advice, or set up an appointment with a counselor. It’s not a weakness.  Make sure the therapist is a good match for you!  Remember it can take time and you may face some setbacks, but also…  Remember treatment is effective! Most people improve!