1. How to Avoid the Lies and Damned Lies: Pitfalls of Data Analysis Clay Helberg Special Topics in Marketing Research Dr. Charles Trappey Summarized by Kevin Beyer

2. The Problem with Statistics “There are three kinds of lies; lies, damned lies and statistics.” Twain or Desraeli Statistics requires the ability to consider things from a probabilistic perspective. Non-mathematicians view numbers as if they must be right, and therefore anything that isn’t ‘right’ must be ‘wrong’. Statistical Pitfalls: I.Sources of Bias, II.Errors in Methodology, III.Interpretation of Results

3. I. Sources of Bias 1. Representative Sampling –The observed sample must represent the target population Problematic sample = one that doesn’t parallel the population –Can’t always control for all of the key characteristics

4. I. Sources of Bias 2.Statistical Assumption –The validity of statistical procedure depends on statistical assumptions ANOVA depends on the assumption of normality and independence Creates a temptation to ignore any non-normality. Should try to find reasons why; measurement artifact -> develop a better measuring tool. –Assumption of independence is often violated Observations that are linked in some way may show dependencies Aggregating cases to the higher level is one way around this.

5. II. Errors in Methodology 1. Statistical Power Vertical dotted line reps. the point-null hypothesis Solid vertical line represents a criterion for significance Alpha = probability of a Type I error (reject null when shouldn’t) Beta = probability of a Type II error (don’t reject null when should) Power refers to your ability to avoid a Type II error – Depends on sample size, effect size, alpha, variability

6. II. Errors in Methodology 1. Statistical Power Cont’d Too little power, you run the risk of missing the effect you’re trying to find Important if you’re looking to claim ‘no difference’ - it may be there, but the sample size may be too small. Too much power can result in tiny or meaningless differences being statistically significant.

7. II. Errors in Methodology 2. Multiple Comparisons

8. II. Errors in Methodology 2. Multiple Comparisons

9. II. Errors in Methodology 3. Measurement Error Occurs especially is ‘noisy’ data, like surveys Important characteristics of measurement are reliability and validity Reliability is the ability of instrument to measure the same thing each time Validity is the extent in which the indicator is able to measure the thing it is meant to measure

10. III. Problems with Interpretation 1. Confusion Over Significance Statistical significance and practical significance are not the same 2. Precision and Accuracy Precision = how finely a specimen is specified (4.097 is more precise than 4.0) Accuracy = how close an estimate is to the true value Estimates can be precise without being accurate Don’t report more decimal places than are meaningful

11. III. Problems with Interpretation 3. Causality The bottom line on causality; you must have random assignment The experimenter must be assigning values of predicator variables to cases. A -> B, B -> A, A B 4. Graphic Representations It is easy to confuse readers when presenting quantitative info. Graphically