1. 159.302LECTURE 159.302 LECTURE Propositional Logic Syntax 1 Source: MIT OpenCourseWare

2. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language

3. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language Syntax – what expressions are legal

4. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language Syntax – what expressions are legal Semantics – what legal expressions mean

5. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language Syntax – what expressions are legal Semantics – what legal expressions mean Proof System – a way of manipulating syntactic expressions to get other syntactic expressions (which will tell us something new)

6. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language Syntax – what expressions are legal Semantics – what legal expressions mean Proof System – a way of manipulating syntactic expressions to get other syntactic expressions (which will tell us something new) Why proofs? Two kinds of inferences an agent might want to make:

7. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language Syntax – what expressions are legal Semantics – what legal expressions mean Proof System – a way of manipulating syntactic expressions to get other sytactic expressions (which will tell us something new) Why proofs? Two kinds of inferences an agent might want to make: Multiple percepts => conclusions about the world

8. Propositional Logic What is a logic? A formal language Syntax – what expressions are legal Semantics – what legal expressions mean Proof System – a way of manipulating syntactic expressions to get other sytactic expressions (which will tell us something new) Why proofs? Two kinds of inferences an agent might want to make: Multiple percepts => conclusions about the world Current state & operator => properties of next state

9. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for( thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++ ){…}

10. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for(thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++){…} Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

11. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for(thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++){…} Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Sentences (wffs: well-formed formulas)

12. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for(thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++){…} Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Sentences (wwfs: well-formed formulas) true and false are sentences

13. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for(thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++){…} Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Sentences (wwfs: well-formed formulas) true and false are sentences Propositional variables are sentences: P, Q, R, Z

14. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for(thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++){…} Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Sentences (wffs: well-formed formulas) true and false are sentences Propositional variables are sentences: P, Q, R, Z If φ and ψ are sentences, then so are

15. Propositional Logic Syntax: what you’re allowed to write for(thing t=fizz; t == fuzz; t++){…} Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Sentences (wffs: well-formed formulas) true and false are sentences Propositional variables are sentences: P, Q, R, Z If φ and ψ are sentences, then so are Nothing else is a sentence

16. Precedence

17. 159.302LECTURE 159.302 LECTURE Propositional Logic Semantics 2 Source: MIT OpenCourseWare

18. Propositional Logic Semantics Meaning of a sentence is truth value {t, f}

19. Propositional Logic Semantics Meaning of a sentence is truth value {t, f} Interpretation is an assignment of truth values to the propositional variables holds(, i) [Sentence is t in interpretation i]

20. Propositional Logic Semantics Meaning of a sentence is truth value {t, f} Interpretation is an assignment of truth values to the propositional variables holds(, i) [Sentece is t in interpretation i] fails(, i) [Sentence is f in interpretation i]

21. Propositional Logic Semantic Rules holds(true, i) for all i

22. Propositional Logic Semantic Rules holds(true, i) for all i fails(false, i) for all i

23. Propositional Logic Semantic Rules holds(true, i) for all i fails(false, i) for all i holds(, i) if and only if fails(, i) (negation)

24. Propositional Logic Semantic Rules holds(true, i) for all i fails(false, i) for all i holds(, i) if and only if fails(, i) (negation) holds(, i) iff holds(,i) and holds(, i) (conjunction)

25. Propositional Logic Semantic Rules holds(true, i) for all i fails(false, i) for all i holds(, i) if and only if fails(, i) (negation) holds(, i) iff holds(,i) and holds(, i) (conjunction) holds(, i) iff holds(,i) or holds(, i) (disjunction)

26. Propositional Logic Semantic Rules holds(true, i) for all i fails(false, i) for all i holds(, i) if and only if fails(, i) (negation) holds(, i) iff holds(,i) and holds(, i) (conjunction) holds(, i) iff holds(,i) or holds(, i) (disjunction) holds( P, i) iff i(P) = t fails( P, i) iff i(P) = f

27. Propositional Logic Some important shorthand (antecedent consequent)

28. Propositional Logic Some important shorthand (antecedent consequent)

29. Propositional Logic Some important shorthand (antecedent consequent) fftffttt fttfttff tffftftf ttfttttt

30. Propositional Logic Some important shorthand (antecedent consequent) fftffttt fttfttff tffftftf ttfttttt Note that implication is not “causality”, if P is f then is t Implication doesn't mean "is related" in any kind of real-world way

31. Propositional Logic Terminology A sentence is valid iff its truth value is t in all interpretations A sentence is satisfiable iff its truth value is t in at least one interpretation A sentence is unsatisfiable iff its truth value is f in all interpretations All are finitely decidable.

32. Examples SentenceValid?Interpretation that make sentence’s truth value = f valid satisfiable, not valid valid contrapositive

33. Examples SentenceValid?Interpretation that make sentence’s truth value = f valid satisfiable, not valid valid contrapositive

34. Examples SentenceValid?Interpretation that make sentence’s truth value = f valid satisfiable, not valid valid contrapositive

35. Examples SentenceValid?Interpretation that make sentence’s truth value = f valid satisfiable, not valid valid contrapositive

36. Examples SentenceValid?Interpretation that make sentence’s truth value = f valid satisfiable, not valid valid contrapositive

37. Satisfiability Related to constraint satisfaction Given a sentence S, try to find an interpretation i such that holds(S,i) Analogous to finding an assignment of values to variables such that the constraints hold

38. Satisfiability Related to constraint satisfaction Given a sentence S, try to find an interpretation i such that holds(S,i) Analogous to finding an assignment of values to variables such that the constraints hold Brute force method: enumerate all interpretations and check

39. Satisfiability Related to constraint satisfaction Given a sentence S, try to find an interpretation i such that holds(S,i) Analogous to finding an assignment of values to variables such that the constraints hold Brute force method: enumerate all interpretations and check Better methods: Heuristic search Constraint propagation Stochastic search

40. Satisfiability Problems Scheduling nurses to work in a hospital propositional variables represent for example, that Pat is working on Tuesday at 2pm constraints on the schedule are represented using logical expressions over the variables Finding bugs in software propositional variables represent state of the program use logic to describe how the program works and to assert there is a bug if the sentence is satisfiable, you’ve found the bug!

41. 159.302LECTURE 159.302 LECTURE Propositional Logic Proof 3 Source: MIT OpenCourseWare

42. A Good lecture? Imagine we knew that: If today is sunny, then Tomas will be happy Should we conclude that the lecture will be good? If Tomas is happy, the lecture will be good Today is sunny

43. Checking Interpretations SHG S H H G SGttttttt ttftftf tftfttt tfffttf fttttft ftftfff fftttft fffttff Good lecture!

44. Adding a variable LSHG S H H G SGtttttttt tttftftf ttftfttt ttfffttf tfttttft tftftfff tfftttft tfffttff fttttttt fttftftf …………

45. Entailment KBentailsS KBSA knowledge base (KB) entails a sentence S iff every interpretation that makes KB true also makes S true

46. Computing Entailment enumerate all interpretations KB select those in which all elements of KB are true S check to see if S is true in all of those interpretations

47. Computing Entailment enumerate all interpretations KB select those in which all elements of KB are true S check to see if S is true in all of those interpretations Way too many interpretations, in general!!

48. Entailment and Proof proof A proof is a way to test whether a KB entails a sentence, without enumerating all possible interpretations

49. Proof proof A proof is a sequence of sentences KB First ones are premises (KB) inference rule Then, you can write down on the next line the result of applying an inference rule to previous lines provedSKB When S is on a line, you have proved S from KB soundSKBKB If inference rules are sound, then any S you can prove from KB is entailed by KB completeSKB KB If inference rules are complete, then any S that is entailed by KB can be proven from KB

50. Natural Deduction inference rules Some inference rules: Modus ponens

51. Natural Deduction Some inference rules: Modus ponensModus tolens

52. Natural Deduction Some inference rules: Modus ponensModus tolensAnd- Introduction

53. Natural Deduction Some inference rules: Modus ponensModus tolensAnd- Introduction And- Elimination

54. Natural Deduction Example StepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given Prove S

55. Natural Deduction Example StepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4P 1 And-Elim Prove S

56. Natural Deduction Example StepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4P 1 And-Elim 5R 4,2 Modus-Ponens Prove S

57. Natural Deduction Example StepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4P 1 And-Elim 5R 4,2 Modus-Ponens 6Q 1 And-Elim Prove S

58. Natural Deduction Example StepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4P 1 And-Elim 5R 4,2 Modus-Ponens 6Q 1 And-Elim 7 5,6 And-Intro Prove S

59. Natural Deduction Example StepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4P 1 And-Elim 5R 4,2 Modus-Ponens 6Q 1 And-Elim 7 5,6 And-Intro 8S 7,3 Modus-Ponens Prove S

60. Proof Systems There are many natural deduction systems; they are typically “proof checkers”, sound but not complete

61. Proof Systems There are many natural deduction systems; they are typically “proof checkers”, sound but not complete Natural deduction Natural deduction uses lots of inference rules which introduces a large branching factor in the search for a proof.

62. Proof Systems There are many natural deduction systems; they are typically “proof checkers”, sound but not complete Natural deduction Natural deduction uses lots of inference rules which introduces a large branching factor in the search for a proof. proof by cases In general, you need to do “proof by cases” which introduces even more branching.StepFormula1 2 3 Prove R

63. Propositional Resolution Resolution rule: Single inference rule is a sound and complete proof system Requires all sentences to be converted to conjunctive normal form

64. 159.302LECTURE 159.302 LECTURE Propositional Logic Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) 4 Source: MIT OpenCourseWare

65. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:

66. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:

67. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:, which is a disjunction of literals

68. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:, which is a disjunction of literals

69. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:, which is a disjunction of literals, each of which is a variable or the negation of a variable.

70. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:, which is a disjunction of literals, each of which is a variable or the negation of a variable. Each clause is a requirement that must be satisfied and can be satisfied in multiple ways Each clause is a requirement that must be satisfied and can be satisfied in multiple ways

71. Conjunctive Normal Form CNF Formulas:, which is a disjunction of literals, each of which is a variable or the negation of a variable. Each clause is a requirement that must be satisfied and can be satisfied in multiple ways Each clause is a requirement that must be satisfied and can be satisfied in multiple ways Every sentence in propositional logic can be written in CNF Every sentence in propositional logic can be written in CNF

72. Converting to CNF 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions

73. Converting to CNF 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions 2.Drive in negations using De Morgan’s Laws

74. Converting to CNF 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions 2.Drive in negations using De Morgan’s Laws 3.Distribute or over and

75. Converting to CNF 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions 2.Drive in negations using De Morgan’s Laws 3.Distribute or over and 4.Every sentence can be converted to CNF, but it may grow exponentially in size

76. CNF Conversion Example

77. 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions

78. CNF Conversion Example 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions 2.Drive in negations using De Morgan’s Laws

79. CNF Conversion Example 1.Eliminate arrows using definitions 2.Drive in negations using De Morgan’s Laws 3.Distribute or over and

80. 159.302LECTURE 159.302 LECTURE Propositional Resolution 5 Source: MIT OpenCourseWare

81. Propositional Resolution Resolution rule: Convert all sentences to CNF Negate the desired conclusion (converted to CNF) Resolution refutation: Apply resolution rule until either Derive false (a contradiction) Can’t apply anymore soundcomplete Resolution refutation is sound and complete If we derive a contradiction, then the conclusion follows from the axioms If we can’t apply anymore, then the conclusion cannot be proven from the axioms

82. Propositional Resolution StepFormula1 2 3 Prove RStepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4 Negated conclusion 51,2 62,4 73,4 85,7 9▪4,8

83. Propositional Resolution StepFormula1 2 3 Prove RStepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4 Negated conclusion 51,2 62,4 73,4 85,7 9▪4,8

84. Propositional Resolution StepFormula1 2 3 Prove RStepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3Given 4 Negated conclusion 51,2 62,4 73,4 85,7 9▪4,8 unnecessary

85. The Power of False StepFormula1 2 Prove ZStepFormulaDerivation1Given 2Given 3 Negated conclusion 4▪1,2 Any conclusion follows from a contradiction – and so strict logic systems are very brittle.

86. Example Problem StepFormula1 2 3 Prove R Convert to CNF

87. Example Problem Step1 2 3 4 5 6 7Neg Prove RStepFormula1 2 3

88. Example Problem Step1 2 3 4 5 6 7Neg 84,7 96,8 101,9 113,10 12▪7,11 Prove RStepFormula1 2 3

89. Proof Strategies Produces a shorter clause – which is good since we are trying to produce a zero-length clause, that is, a contradiction. Unit Preference: prefer a resolution step involving a unit clause (clause with one literal). We’re trying to produce a contradiction that follows from the negated goal, so these are “relevant” clauses Set of support: choose a resolution involving the negated goal or any clause derived from the negated goal. If a contradiction exists, one can find one using the set-of-support strategy.