1. CHAPTER 15: Tests of Significance The Basics ESSENTIAL STATISTICS Second Edition David S. Moore, William I. Notz, and Michael A. Fligner Lecture Presentation

2. Chapter 15 Concepts  The Reasoning of Tests of Significance  Stating Hypotheses  P-values  Tests for a Population Mean  Statistical Significance 2

3. Confidence intervals are one of the two most common types of statistical inference. Use a confidence interval when your goal is to estimate a population parameter. The second common type of inference, called tests of significance, has a different goal: to assess the evidence provided by data about some claim concerning a population. 3 Statistical Inference A test of significance is a formal procedure for comparing observed data with a claim (also called a hypothesis) whose truth we want to assess. The claim is a statement about a parameter, like the population proportion p or the population mean µ. We express the results of a significance test in terms of a probability that measures how well the data and the claim agree. A test of significance is a formal procedure for comparing observed data with a claim (also called a hypothesis) whose truth we want to assess. The claim is a statement about a parameter, like the population proportion p or the population mean µ. We express the results of a significance test in terms of a probability that measures how well the data and the claim agree.

4. 4 The Reasoning of Tests of Significance We can use software to simulate 400 sets of 50 shots assuming that the player is really an 80% shooter. The observed statistic is so unlikely if the actual parameter value is p = 0.80 that it gives convincing evidence that the player’s claim is not true. You can say how strong the evidence against the player’s claim is by giving the probability that he would make as few as 32 out of 50 free throws if he really makes 80% in the long run. Suppose a basketball player claimed to be an 80% free-throw shooter. To test this claim, we have him attempt 50 free-throws. He makes 32 of them. His sample proportion of made shots is 32/50 = 0.64. What can we conclude about the claim based on this sample data?

5. 5 Stating Hypotheses Null Hypothesis H 0 ◊ The claim being tested in a statistical test is called the null hypothesis (H 0 ). ◊ Often the null hypothesis is a statement of “no difference.” Alternative hypothesis H a ◊ The claim about the population for which we are trying to find evidence is the alternative hypothesis (H a ). ◊ The alternative is one-sided if it states that a parameter is larger or smaller than the null hypothesis value. ◊ It is two-sided if it states that the parameter is different from the null value (it could be either smaller or larger). Test ◊ The test is designed to assess the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis Null Hypothesis H 0 ◊ The claim being tested in a statistical test is called the null hypothesis (H 0 ). ◊ Often the null hypothesis is a statement of “no difference.” Alternative hypothesis H a ◊ The claim about the population for which we are trying to find evidence is the alternative hypothesis (H a ). ◊ The alternative is one-sided if it states that a parameter is larger or smaller than the null hypothesis value. ◊ It is two-sided if it states that the parameter is different from the null value (it could be either smaller or larger). Test ◊ The test is designed to assess the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis : In the free-throw shooter example, our hypotheses are H 0 : p = 0.80 H a : p < 0.80 where p is the true long-run proportion of made free throws.

6. 6 Example Does the job satisfaction of assembly-line workers differ when their work is machine-paced rather than self-paced? One study chose 18 subjects at random from a company with over 200 workers who assembled electronic devices. Half of the workers were assigned at random to each of two groups. Both groups did similar assembly work, but one group was allowed to pace themselves while the other group used an assembly line that moved at a fixed pace. After two weeks, all the workers took a test of job satisfaction. Then they switched work setups and took the test again after two more weeks. The response variable is the difference in satisfaction scores, self-paced minus machine-paced. State appropriate hypotheses for performing a significance test. The parameter of interest is the mean µ of the differences (self-paced minus machine-paced) in job satisfaction scores in the population of all assembly-line workers at this company. Because the initial question asked whether job satisfaction differs, the alternative hypothesis is two-sided; that is, either µ 0. For simplicity, we write this as µ ≠ 0. That is, H 0 : µ = 0 H a : µ ≠ 0 Because the initial question asked whether job satisfaction differs, the alternative hypothesis is two-sided; that is, either µ 0. For simplicity, we write this as µ ≠ 0. That is, H 0 : µ = 0 H a : µ ≠ 0

7. Essential StatisticsChapter 13 7 Take an SRS of size n from a Normal population with unknown mean µ and known standard deviation σ. The test statistic for hypotheses about the mean (H 0 : µ = µ 0 ) of a Normal distribution is the standardized version of x-bar: Test Statistic Testing the Mean of a Normal population

8. 8 P-Value The null hypothesis H 0 states the claim that we are seeking evidence against. The probability that measures the strength of the evidence against a null hypothesis is called a P-value. A test statistic calculated from the sample data measures how far the data diverge from what we would expect if the null hypothesis H 0 were true. Large values of the statistic show that the data are not consistent with H 0. The probability, computed assuming H 0 is true, that the statistic would take a value as extreme as or more extreme than the one actually observed is called the P-value of the test. The smaller the P-value, the stronger the evidence against H 0 provided by the data. A test statistic calculated from the sample data measures how far the data diverge from what we would expect if the null hypothesis H 0 were true. Large values of the statistic show that the data are not consistent with H 0. The probability, computed assuming H 0 is true, that the statistic would take a value as extreme as or more extreme than the one actually observed is called the P-value of the test. The smaller the P-value, the stronger the evidence against H 0 provided by the data. Small P-values are evidence against H 0 because they say that the observed result is unlikely to occur when H 0 is true. Large P-values fail to give convincing evidence against H 0 because they say that the observed result is likely to occur by chance when H 0 is true.

9. 9 z Test for a Population Mean

10. 10 The Four-Step Process State: What is the practical question that requires a statistical test? Plan: Identify the parameter, state the null and alternative hypotheses, and choose the type of test that fits your situation. Solve: Carry out the work in three phases: 1. Check the conditions for the test that you plan to use. 2. Calculate the test statistic. 3. Find the P-value. Conclude: Return to the practical question to describe your results in this setting. State: What is the practical question that requires a statistical test? Plan: Identify the parameter, state the null and alternative hypotheses, and choose the type of test that fits your situation. Solve: Carry out the work in three phases: 1. Check the conditions for the test that you plan to use. 2. Calculate the test statistic. 3. Find the P-value. Conclude: Return to the practical question to describe your results in this setting. Tests of Significance: The Four-Step Process

11. 11 Statistical Significance The final step in performing a significance test is to draw a conclusion about the claims you were testing. We will make one of two decisions based on the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis (and in favor of the alternative hypothesis)―reject H 0 or fail to reject H 0. If our sample result is too unlikely to have happened by chance assuming H 0 is true, then we’ll reject H 0. Otherwise, we will fail to reject H 0. Note: A fail-to-reject H 0 decision in a significance test doesn’t mean that H 0 is true. For that reason, you should never “accept H 0 ” or use language implying that you believe H 0 is true. In a nutshell, our conclusion in a significance test comes down to: P-value small → reject H 0 → conclude H a (in context) P-value large → fail to reject H 0 → cannot conclude H a (in context)

12. 12 There is no rule for how small a P-value we should require in order to reject H 0 — it’s a matter of judgment and depends on the specific circumstances. But we can compare the P-value with a fixed value that we regard as decisive, called the significance level. We write it as α, the Greek letter alpha. When our P-value is less than the chosen α, we say that the result is statistically significant. If the P-value is smaller than alpha, we say that the data are statistically significant at level α. The quantity α is called the significance level or the level of significance. When we use a fixed level of significance to draw a conclusion in a significance test, P-value < α → reject H 0 → conclude H a (in context) P-value ≥ α → fail to reject H 0 → cannot conclude H a (in context) When we use a fixed level of significance to draw a conclusion in a significance test, P-value < α → reject H 0 → conclude H a (in context) P-value ≥ α → fail to reject H 0 → cannot conclude H a (in context) Statistical Significance

13. 13 Example Does the job satisfaction of assembly workers differ when their work is machine-paced rather than self-paced? A matched pairs study was performed on a sample of workers, and each worker’s satisfaction was assessed after working in each setting. The response variable is the difference in satisfaction scores, self-paced minus machine-paced. The null hypothesis is no average difference in scores in the population of assembly workers, whereas the alternative hypothesis (that which we want to show is likely to be true) is that there is an average difference in scores in the population of assembly workers. H 0 :  = 0H a :  ≠ 0 This is considered a two-sided test because we are interested in determining if a difference exists (the direction of the difference is not of interest in this study).

14. 14 Suppose job satisfaction scores follow a Normal distribution with standard deviation  = 60. Data from 18 workers gave a sample mean score of 17. If the null hypothesis of no average difference in job satisfaction is true, the test statistic would be: Example

15. 15 For the test statistic z = 1.20 and alternative hypothesis H a :  ≠ 0, the P-value would be: P-value = P(Z 1.20) = 2 P(Z 1.20) = (2)(0.1151) = 0.2302 If H 0 is true, there is a 0.2302 (23.02%) chance that we would see results at least as extreme as those in the sample; thus, because we saw results that are likely if H 0 is true, we therefore do not have good evidence against H 0 and in favor of H a. Example

16. Essential StatisticsChapter 13 16 The four steps in carrying out a significance test: 1.State the null and alternative hypotheses. 2.Calculate the test statistic. 3.Find the P-value, compare with significance level ɑ 4.State your conclusion in the context of the specific setting of the test. The procedure for Steps 2 and 3 is on the next page.