1. Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives
Thank you. Hi Everyone My name is Tony Roberts, I'm a final year PhD student and I'm here with five colleagues from the ICT4D Centre at Royal Holloway, University of London. This is my first time at IFIP9.4 and I was attracted specifically by this conference track on critical understandings of ICT4D. I'm hoping that with your feedback you can help me in my attempt to use critical theory to inform a typology of ICT4D practice.
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

2. Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives
In the second half of my presentation I will present a draft Typology of ICT4D practices which I am using to tease out various elements of criticality in ICT4D. But first some background My empirical research looks at the use of participatory video by women's groups in Zambia and has a theoretical framework that combines elements of the capabilities approach with critical feminism and the critical theories of Jurgen Habermas & Paulo Freire.
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

3. What does it mean to be critical in ICT4D?
My core concept is critical agency – a concept used by both Amartya Sen and by scholar of Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy – however as neither provides a clear definition for the term – and I have struggled with the question of What it means to be critical in ICT4D? At one point a senior academic took me aside and warned me to be careful - they said – the trouble with unpacking the term 'critical' is that everybody thinks that their work is critical. I think I was being warned that it might provoke a backlash to critique a term which is part of many people's professional and political identity?
What does it mean to be critical in ICT4D?
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

4. So me deal with that straight away
So me deal with that straight away. I ran two ICT4D agencies before starting my PhD. and if I am brutally honest I estimate that in 25 years as a practitioner 99% of my professional output was not critical, was not emancipatory, was not transformative. And when I say 99% that might be an under-estimation! I have no illusions of being more critical than anyone else. None whatsoever. But what I do have is sufficient curiosity to reflect after 25 years of practice about how it might be possible to have been more critical, more emancipatory or more transformative - as an ICT4D practitioner – and now as a researcher.
99% of my own ICT4D work not critical not emancipatory & not transformative
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

5. Four Types of Critical: 1. negative appraisal 2. critical thinking 3
Four Types of Critical: 1. negative appraisal 2. critical thinking 3. critique 4. critical theory
One problem I have is that the word critical is used to describe such a wide range of approaches - that it is in danger of meaning very little. Its ability to clearly differentiate is diminished by the breadth of its use. In reviewing the existing literature the term 'critical' seemed to be being used in at least four ways: critical as in a negative appraisal critical as in critical thinking critical as in a critique of & critical as in critical theories
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

6. To cut a long story short I concluded that the first three were necessary but insufficient. Insufficient in the sense that it is possible to be critical in the first three senses and yet not deal with the power interests that structure and co- determine the fundamental inequalities with which development is properly concerned: with gender, race, class and other dominant power interests. So as a starting point I used the definition of “critical” provide by Raymond Jeuss which says that in order to to qualify as critical a process must be - reflective, productive of knowledge produce enlightenment about interests and inform emancipatory action. And so by extension my definition of 'critical-agency' is action by disadvantaged groups to improve their own situation - based on reflection about the interests that limit or extend their freedom
To be critical a process must be 1. reflexive 2. productive of knowledge 3. enlightening about interests & 4. inform emancipatory action Raymond Geuss (1981)
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

7. 1. Critical Intent (ends) 2. Critical Practice (means)
Being critical in ICT4D it seems to me has two main dimensions – a dimension of critical intent and a dimension of critical practice. That is what you are aiming for. And how you go about getting there. In working through these issues I fortunate to have access to an unpublished paper by Ineke Buskens. In 2014 Ineke was asked by the Canadian Development Research Institute IDRC to write an internal think-piece for their staff on approaches to gender and development research
Critical Intent & Practices in ICT4D a typology of ICT4D initiatives

8. Habermas' Knowledge Constitutive Interests
As part of that work for IDRC Ineke developed a nine-fold matrix of research choices by intersecting three types of researcher intent with three research methodologies Ineke's framework builds on Jurgen Habermas’s knowledge constitutive interests Habermas argued that these are grounded in three fundamental human drives: The human interest for technical control of the world – he argues - gives rise to the Empirical-Analytical Approach which is linked with positivism and to quantitative methods Secondly - The human interest for Communicative-Understanding gives rise to the Hermeneutic-Interpretive paradigm, which is characterised by qualitative research methods and Thirdly - The human interest in Emancipation-from- Domination gives rise to the Critical-Emancipatory research paradigm and to participatory action research methods
Human Interest
Research Paradigm
Research Methods
Technical- Control
Empirical- Analytical
Quantitative
Communicative-Understanding
Interpretive- Hermeneutic
Qualitative
Emancipation from Domination
Critical- Emancipatory
(Participatory) Action Research
(Habermas, 1972)
Unwin (2009)
Buskens (2014)
Habermas' Knowledge Constitutive Interests

9. Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Research Paradigm
Research Methods
Empirical Analytical
Quantitative
Interpretive Hermeneutic
Qualitative
Critical Emancipatory
(Participatory) Action Research
Ineke takes these three research approaches as one axis of her framework and intersects them with three categories of researcher intent which she names conformist, reformist and transformist
Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research

10. Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
For Ineke conformist researcher intent - aims to produce knowledge in order to understand how best to assist women to conform to existing unequal gender relations and to the structural power interests that support them. The second category Reformist researcher intent - aims to produce knowledge in order to understand how best to reform existing unequal gender relationships – but does so without addressing the underlying structural power interests - The root-causes that give rise to and which support those unequal relations. The third category Transformist researcher intent - aims to enable women to produce knowledge – so that they better understand for themselves existing unequal gender relations - and the structural power interests that support them - in order to transform them both.
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Empirical Analytical
Interpretive Hermeneutic
Critical Emancipatory
(Habermas, 1972)
Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist – understanding to cope with unequal social relations Reformist – understanding to reform social relations without challenging structural causes Transformist – tackles the structural causes of inequality

11. Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Empirical Analytical
Quantitative
Interpretive Hermeneutic
Qualitative
Critical Emancipatory
(Participatory) Action Research
(Habermas, 1972)
There is substantially more detail in each segment of Ineke's table that I've been able to include on this slide ….. Before proceeding to the typoIogy of ICT practices I just need to say two things in order to do justice to Ineke: In presenting her framework she made only modest claims for it and makes two caveats:
Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist – understanding to cope with unequal social relations Reformist – understanding to reform social relations without challenging structural causes Transformist – tackles the structural causes of inequality

12. Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Empirical Analytical
Quantitative
Interpretive Hermeneutic
Qualitative
Critical Emancipatory
(Participatory) Action Research
(Habermas, 1972)
The first is that paradigms are under-determined by methods and methods are under determined by paradigms, meaning that any research method can be used in the context of any knowledge paradigms
2nd caveat is that this is only an overview. The framework is too simplistic to represent any given actual research project. It is intended only as a tool to initiate a conversation about researchers' intent and their choice of research methodology in order that the research might best contribute to gender equality.
Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist – understanding to cope with unequal social relations Reformist – understanding to reform social relations without challenging structural causes Transformist – tackles the structural causes of inequality

13. Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Empirical Analytical
Quantitative
Interpretive Hermeneutic
Qualitative
Critical Emancipatory
(Participatory) Action Research
(Habermas, 1972)
In my own research on gender and development in Zambia I found Ineke's framework really useful in thinking through what the practical intent of my research actually was But the more familiar I became with her approach the more convinced I became that it had wider application; both beyond gender and beyond research. Beyond Gender because I find it equally useful for thinking and talking about other unequal social relations including, for example, those of class and race. & Beyond Research because I find it a useful basis to think through elements of ICT4D practice.
Buskens' Framework for Gender & Development Research
Conformist – understanding to cope with unequal social relations Reformist – understanding to reform social relations without challenging structural causes Transformist – tackles the structural causes of inequality

14. Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Technical – Control Interest
Communicative – Understandng Interest
Emancipatory
Interest in Overcoming Domination
(Habermas, 1972)
So I have appropriated and modified Ineke's framework as the basis for a typology of ICT4D practices The aim of which is equally modest – to serve as a starting point for practitioners to assess choices of potential development practices for their ICT4D projects and initiatives, to enable them to align their ICT4D project design with their practical intent, and to do so in a way in a way that makes transparent their thinking so that all stakeholders can potentially input ideas at any stage of the process. So you have a handout of the Typology of ICT4D practices.
Topology of ICT4D initiatives Conformist – initiatives intent on better cope with unequal social relations Reformist – initiatives intent on reforming social relations without challenging structural causes Transformist – initiatives intent on tackling the structural causes of inequality

15. Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Technical – Control Interest
Communicative – Understandng Interest
Emancipatory
Interest in Overcoming Domination
(Habermas, 1972)
In my typology I make three main changes from Ineke's gender and research framework The typology does not relate to research methods but rather to operational practices of ICT4D projects The typology is not limited to gender but speaks to any form of unequal social relations including gender, race and class and the intersectionality thereof because the focus of the ICT4D Typology is operational practices and not gender and development research I have substituted Ineke's axis of research paradigms with Habermas' three categories of human interests
Topology of ICT4D initiatives Conformist – initiatives intent on better cope with unequal social relations Reformist – initiatives intent on reforming social relations without challenging structural causes Transformist – initiatives intent on tackling the structural causes of inequality

16. Topology of ICT4D initiatives
So in the horizontal categories are the human interests for technical- control, communicative- understanding & emancipation from domination. And I argue that the human interest in technical control shapes and gives rise to a top- down, technology-centred and often technologically- deterministic approaches to ICT4D that aim to produce technical fixes to control what are really human and political problems. Secondly - The human interest in communicative-understanding gives rise to communication- centred approaches and to development practices that aim to amplify voices and share information and knowledge. The third human interest – the interest in emancipation from domination – can be seen as giving rise to an a human-centred approach to ICT4D practices - that enable disadvantaged people to appropriate ICTs into their own efforts to produce new knowledge about their situation and enable them better to transform it.
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Technical – Control Interest
Top-Down Techno-Centric Practice
Communicative – Understandng Interest
Info & Comms-Centric Practice
Emancipatory
Interest in Overcoming Domination
Bottom-Up People-Centred Emancipatory Practice
(Habermas, 1972)
Topology of ICT4D initiatives

17. Topology of ICT4D initiatives
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Technical – Control Interest
Top-Down Techno-Centric Practice
Communicative – Understandng Interest
Info & Comms-Centric Practice
Emancipatory
Interest in Overcoming Domination
Bottom-Up People-Centred Emancipatory Practice
(Habermas, 1972)
By intersecting these three choices of practice – with Ineke's unchanged categories of intent – I arrive at a typology of nine kinds of ICT4D practice. Like Ineke I immediately make two caveats The claim made for this typology is modest. It is intended only as a tool for talking and thinking about intent and practices It is too simplistic to capture the full complexity of social reality. In real life ICT4D projects will straddle categories along both dimensions. The typology is intended only as a means to facilitate a conversation about stakeholder intentions during the process of ICT4D project design, implementation and evaluation.
Topology of ICT4D initiatives

18. Topology of ICT4D initiatives
Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Techno-Centric Practice
eGov HMIS OLPC
Top-Down Techno-Centric Practice
Info & Comms-Centric Practice
Esoko Open Data
People-Centred Emancipatory Practice
Community Informatics Reflect ICTs Twaweza
Bottom-Up People-Centred Emancipatory Practice
(Habermas, 1972)
[second caveat] Although I have provided exemplar ICT4D projects to illustrate the categories in the typology in reality a project type like a government Health Management Information System – which I have used as an exemplar of a top-down, technology-centred ICT4D initiative – could be implemented in quite different ways by different governments – so in practice it will always be empirical evidence from the situated and contextual realities that will be definitive – and not a project type.
Topology of ICT4D initiatives

19. Conformist Intent
Reformist Intent
Transformist Intent
(Buskens, 2014)
Techno-Centric Practice
Info & Comms-Centric Practice
People-Centred Emancipatory Practice
CRITICAL ICT4D
(Habermas, 1972)
So at this point in my research I remain uncertain about how cautious I should be about unpacking the term “critical” as I don't want to provoke a defensive reaction and alienate people Yet on the other hand my research seems to be leading me to make the normative claim that critical ICT4D practice should aim to combine critical intent with critical practice – that is combine Transformative Intent with Emancipatory Practice? I would value your feedback, which I am happy to take in any of the four forms of critical. Thank you
Critical ICT4D combines Transformative Intent with Emancipatory Practice

20. Thank you
Tony Roberts @phat_controller appropriatingtechnology.org
Thank You

21. References:
Avgerou, Chrisanthi (2008) Information Systems in Developing countries: a critical research review. Journal of Information Technology, 23 (3), 133–146. Beardon, Hannah (2004) ICT for Development: Empowerment or Exploitation? Learning from the Reflect ICTs Project, London, Action Aid Publications.
Buskens, Ineke (2014) Developing the Capacity for Gender Awareness in Development Research, IDRC.
Heeks, Richard (2002) Failure, Success and Improvisation of Informations Systems Projects in Developing Countries, Development Informatics Working Paper Series, No.11 Manchester: IDPM. Accessed 12/10/14
Heeks, Richard (2009a) Participatory Design Problems in ICT4D: The Low Self-Efficacy  Issue, Kleine, Dorothea (2010) ICT4WHAT?: using the Choice Framework to operationalise the capability approach to development, Journal of Int. Development, Vol.22 (5). Molyneux, Maxine (1985) Mobilisation Without Emancipation, Feminist Studies, Unwin (2009) ICT4D, Cambridge University Press.
Walsham, Geoff (2013) Development Informatics in a Changing World: Reflections from ICTD2010/2012, Information Technologies and International Development, 9 (1) Zheng, Yingqin & Stahl, Bernd (2011) Technology, capabilities and critical perspectives: what can critical theory contribute to Sen’s capability approach?, Ethics of Information Technology, Vol.13:69–80.