1. China – Impact of the Past and Key Institutions

2. “Let China sleep. For when China wakes, it will shake the world
“Let China sleep. For when China wakes, it will shake the world.” - Napoleon Bonaparte

3. Introduction
Ancient China was arguably one of the strongest, richest empires in existence
Western countries have tended to either ignore or exploit China in world politics
Today
Is world power, partly b/c of improvements in GNP & standard of living
Membership in WTO, travel frequently to other countries, active part in UN
Steady move toward capitalism leads some to think democratization was on its way – but gov’t remains authoritarian w/ no change in sight
Provides evidence that marketization & democracy don’t always go together

4. Tradition of Sovereignty, Authority, & Power
Until 20th Century – history characterized by dynastic cycles – long periods of rule by a family punctuated by times of “chaos”, when the family lost its power & challenged by a new ruling dynasty
Power determined by mandate of heaven – right to rule as seen by the collective ancestral wisdom that guided the empire from the heavens above
Public authority rested w/ emperor & his bureaucracy that exercised highly centralized power

5. After chaos in early 20th century – Mao Zedong took over China in 1949
Technically governed by a constitution that grants formal authority to both party and state executive and legislative offices
However, is still governed by an authoritarian elite not bound by rule of law
As long as rulers are above the law, constitution will not be a source of legitimacy for the state

6. Historical Traditions
Authoritarian Power – borders have changed over time, but has long been a huge, land-based empire
Citizens traditionally been subjects of, not participants in, political system
Ruling family has always been subject to attack from regional warlords who challenged their right to the mandate of heaven
Tendency toward decentralization is apparent in modern regime as centralized politburo attempts to control its vast population, numerous policies, problems
Middle Kingdom (“zhong-guo”) or the place that is the center of civilization
Foreigners seen as barbarians w/ civilization inferior to China’s
In terms of power & quality of life
China almost always assumed no one else had much to offer them
Traditional assumptions challenged, but not destroyed by imperialist powers in 19th century

7. Confucianism – philosophy has shaped the Chinese political system since 6th century BCE
Emphasized importance of order & harmony
Encouraged Chinese citizens to submit to the emperor’s power
Reinforced emperors’ responsibility to fulfill his duties
This may be tied to democratic centralism (communist belief in a small group of leaders who rule for the good of the people)
Still a major influence on society today
Contradicts w/ egalitarian ideology of communism w/ it’s central belief in unequal relationships & mutual respect among people of different statuses

8. Bureaucratic hierarchy based on scholarship
Emperors surrounded themselves w/ highly organized bureaucracies that formed an elite based on Confucian scholarship
Gov’t jobs coveted, competitive, small % actually mastering the examination system
Exams were knowledge based
Be well versed in Confucianism & related philosophies
Major social separation in Ancient China – between large peasant population & bureaucratic elite

9. Communist Ideologies – new influence of Maoism
Emphasized “right thinking” & moralism of Confucianism
Contradicted hierarchical nature of the old regime w/ insistence on egalitarianism
Late 20th century brought Deng Xiaoping Theory – practical mix of authoritarian political control & economic privatization

10. Confucianism & Maoism Maoism Confucianism
Democratic Centralism (responsibility of ruler to the people)
Vision of ideal society based on self-reliance & struggle
Egalitarian social structure; mass line between rulers & subjects
Emphasis on loyalty to the state, Mao
Confucianism
Mandate of Heaven (responsibility of ruler to the people)
Vision of an ideal society based on harmony & obedience
Hierarchical social & political organization; rulers & subjects have unequal positions
Emphasis on loyalty to the family

11. Political Culture multi-dimensional, shaped by geographical features & history
Geographic influences
Largest population on earth
3rd largest land area (after Russia, Canada)
Access to oceans / ice free ports
Many large navigable rivers
Major geographical / climate splits between N & S
Geographic isolation of western part of country
Mountain ranges, deserts, oceans separate China from other countries

12. Historical Eras
Dynastic Rule: centers on Confucian values (order, harmony, strong sense of hierarchy)
Traditionally valued scholarship as way to establish superiority
Early relative isolation from other countries contributed to strong sense of cultural identity
High degree of ethnocentrism – sense China is central to humanity & superior to other cultures
Centuries of expansion have brought many other Asian people under Chinese control, resulting in long-standing conflict between “Han” Chinese & other groups (i.e. Tibet)
Resistance to imperialism: sense of cultural identity turned into nationalism during 19th century
Persistent attempts to exploit China’s resources & people by imperialist countries (Britain, Germany, France, Japan)
Nationalism secured by Revolution of 1911 & hatred of “foreign devils” has led China to be cautious in her dealings w/ capitalist countries today

13. Maoism: Mao Zedong strongly influenced by Karl Marx & Lenin, but his version of communism distinctly suited to China’s needs
Mao resisted inequality implied by Lenin’s beliefs
Mao believed in strength of the peasant, centered his philosophy on these central values:
Collectivism: good of the community is valued above that of the individual – suited to peasant-based communities, scholars always drawn toward individualism
Struggle & activism: Mao encouraged the people to actively pursue values of socialism, which he understood would require struggle & devotion
Mass line: line of communication between party leaders, members, & peasants that would allow all to struggle toward realization of goals of communist state. It involved teaching & listening on everyone’s part. Leaders would communicate their will & direction to the people, but the people would communicate through mass line their wisdoms to the leaders.

14. Deng Xiaoping Theory: practical approach to solving China’s problems
Egalitarianism: hierarchy was key organizing principle in Chinese society before 1949; Mao’s emphasis on egalitarian society in complete opposition
Self-reliance: people under Maoist rule were encouraged to rely on their own talents to contribute to their communities
Deng Xiaoping Theory: practical approach to solving China’s problems
Didn’t worry about whether a policy was capitalist or socialist as long as it improved the economy
Result of his leadership ( )
Dramatic turnaround of Chinese economy through combination of socialist planning & capitalist free market
Political & social views did remain true to Communist tradition – Party should supervise all, now allowances for individual freedoms and / or democracy
“It doesn’t matter whether a cat is white or black, as long as it catches mice” – Deng, 1962

15. Legitimacy Traditions
Under dynastic rule, Chinese citizens subjects of the emperor
Legitimacy established through mandate of heaven, power passed through hereditary connections
As long as things go well – emperor’s authority generally accepted
When problems appeared – dynasty weakened, rival families challenged the throne, saying ruling family had lost its mandate
Legitimacy not for peasants to determine, but popular rebellions / unrest served as signs the emperor failing

16. Revolution of 1911 – created Chinese Republic w/ western educated Sun Yat-sen as 1st president
Supposed to be democracy w/ legitimacy resting on popular gov’t
Regional warlords challenged the gov’t
Emerging from chaos – Mao Zedong w/ own version of authoritarianism: Maoism
People’s Republic of China established 1949
Mao led Communist Party until death in 1976
Maoism is idealistic & egalitarian
(even though it endorsed centralized power exercised through top leaders of Party)
Stressed importance of mass line

17. Politburo of Communist Party remains legitimate source of power, but leadership has come under great deal of criticism in recent years
Party is said to be corrupt & irrelevant, holding authoritarian power over increasingly market-based economy
Rebellions & criticisms more frequent since Tiananmen Square incident in 1989
How serious a threat the criticisms are to current regime is matter of debate
Current leaders show no signs of loosening Party’s hold on gov’t & economy
Important source of power – military!
Played central role in rise of Communist Party
Is represented in gov’t by the Central Military Commission
Head of commission plays important role in policy-making

18. Political & Economic Change
Change before 1949
Dynastic cycles
Control by imperialistic nations
Qing Dynasty fell to imperialistic nations – England, Germany, France, Japan – carved China into spheres of influence for economic gain
Chinese resentful of foreign devils they eventually fought against

19. Revolutionary Upheavals – themes of revolutionary era (1911-1949)
Nationalism – wished to recapture strength & power from imperialist nations
Revolution of 1911 under Sun Yat-sen successfully reestablished China as independent country
Establishing a new political community – what kind of new gov’t would China have w/o imperialist countries?
Chiang Kai-shek founded Nationalist Party (Guomindang)
Mao Zedong founded Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Socioeconomic development – reestablish strong economic & social fabric after imperialism
During 1920s Soviet Union served as a model for policymaking, but Nationalists broke w/ them in 1928
Chiang Kai-shek became president of China
Mao & Communists left as an “outlaw party”

20. The Founding of the People’s Republic of China – 1949-1966
After WWII – civil war; Mao & communists prevailed!
Chiang fled to Taiwan (Formosa); claimed his headquarters was true Chinese gov’t
Mao established People’s Republic under communist rule
“Two Chinas” were created / PRC not recognized by UN as a nation until 1972

21. Early Political Development of PRC in 2 phases:
The Soviet Model ( ) – USSR supporting Mao’s efforts, began pouring $$ & expertise into PRC, w/ attention on most glaring problems:
Land reform – redistributed property & increased productivity in the countryside
Civil reform – freeing people from opium addiction, enhance women’s legal rights
Five-year plans – first in

22. The Great Leap Forward – Mao changed directions 1958 in an effort to free China from Soviet domination
Spirit of nationalism!
Mao still unhappy w/ the degree of inequality in society
Was utopian effort to transform China into radical egalitarian society
Mainly economic emphasis
all around development: = attention to industry & agriculture
Mass mobilization: turn size of population into asset – better motivation, harder work, less unemployment
Political unanimity & zeal: emphasis on party workers running gov’t; cadres: party workers at lowest levels were expected to demonstrate party devotion by spurring the people on to work as hard as they could
Decentralization: encouraged more gov’t on the local level, less central control
Didn’t live up to its name – Mao’s efforts ran against traditional political culture & the people lacked skills to contribute to industrialization

23. Cultural Revolution – 1966-1976
Between allowed Liu Shaoqi & Deng Xiaoping to include some market-oriented policies to revive economy
To continue push toward egalitarianism introduced Cultural Revolution w/ goal to purify the party & the country through radical transformation
Principles included:
The ethic of struggle
Mass line
Collectivism
Egalitarianism
Unstinting service to society

24. Mao died in 1976; followers divided into factions:
Primary goal of the Cultural Revolution to remove all vestiges of the old China
Scholars sent to fields to work, universities & libraries were destroyed
Emphasis on elementary education
But any education that created inequality was targeted for destruction
Mao died in 1976; followers divided into factions:
Radicals – led by Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing; supported Cultural Revolution
Military – led by Lin Biao, who died in mysterious plane crash in 1971; powerful group b/c of long-lasting 20th century struggles
Moderates – led by Zhou Enlai; emphasized economic modernization, limited contact w/ other countries including the US; Zhou influenced Mao to invite Nixon to China in 1972
Members of these factions not only tied to each other through common purpose, but also through personal relationships, illustrating importance of informal politics throughout Chinese history

25. Deng Xiaoping’s Modernizations (1978-1997)
Deng new leader of Moderates by 1978
His vision drastically altered China’s direction through Four Modernizations which have been heart of official policy ever since
Industry
Agriculture
Science
Military

26. Deng’s policies helped implement the new direction:
“open door” trade policy – trade w/ everyone encouraged, including capitalists nations
Reforms in education – higher academic standards & expansion of higher education & research to reverse policy of Cultural Revolution
Institutionalization of the Revolution – revolutionary goals were reconciled w/ restoring legal system & bureaucracy of the Old China, decentralizing gov’t, modifying elections, capitalism!

27. 4 Generations of Leadership
1st Generation: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi
Started PRC
All were both military and political leaders
Formative experiences: Long March, Chinese Civil War
Educated in China
2nd Generation: Deng Xiaoping, Chen Yun, Hu Yaobang, Hua Guofang
Juniors in Chinese Revolution
Formative experiences: Long March, Chinese Civil War, Cultural Revolution
Educated outside of China – mostly France

28. Mao Zedong
Deng Xiaoping

29. 3rd Generation: Jiang Zemin, Zhao, Li Peng, Zhu Rongji
Educated prior to Sino-Soviet split
Educated in Soviet Union as engineers, worked as factory managers
Split between political and military leadership
Formative experiences: Sino-Japanese War, Korean War
4th Generation: Hu Jintao, Wen Jaibo, Zeng Qinghong
Promoted to leadership during 16th Party Congress, expected to remain in power until 18th Party Congress, 2012
Most were engineers, educations interrupted by Cultural Revolution
Have spent little time overseas

30. Jiang Zemin
Hu Jintao
Wen Jiabao

31. Political Institutions
Political regime best categorized as authoritarian (decisions are made by political elites – those that hold power – w/o much input from citizens)
Leaders recruited through membership in Party
Personal relationships & informal ties are also important in deciding who controls the regime
Same struggle – how to effectively govern huge expanse of land & large population from one centralized location
Moving toward market economy – centralization has become even more problematic
As result: major feature of economic decision-making is now decentralization (devolution to sub-national gov’ts)
Local gov’ts often defy / ignore central gov’t by setting own taxes, or building projects w/o consulting central gov’t

32. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Political framework of PRC is designed to penetrate as many corners of the country as possible w/ an elaborately organized CCP
Party personnel control gov’t structures
Integrates military into political hierarchy
Political elites recruited from military & the head of the Central Military Commission is among most powerful leaders
Party is still at heart of political system
Bases its claim to legitimacy on representation of historical best interest of all the people
Society is best led by elite vanguard party w/ superior understanding of Chinese people & their needs (democratic centralism)

33. Organization of the CCP – hierarchically by all levels – village/township, county, province, nation
Head of gov’t now called “general secretary”
Party has own constitution separate from gov’t’s constitution of 1982
Central bodies are:
National Party Congress: 2000 delegates chosen primarily from congresses on lower levels
Only meets every 5 years, so isn’t very important in policymaking
Usually rubberstamps party leaders’ decisions
Main importance – power to elect members of the Central Committee
Central Committee: 340 members that meet annually for about 1 week
Carry on business of National Party Congress between sessions
Size & infrequent meetings limit policymaking powers
Meetings called plenums & are important b/c are gatherings of political elites
Politburo & Standing Committee members chosen from ranks

34. Politburo / Standing Committee: most powerful political organizations
Chosen by Central Committee
Decisions dictate gov’t policies
Politburo has 24 members
Standing Committee is chosen from Politburo, has 7 members; meet in secret;
membership reflects balance of power among factions & relative influence of different groups in policymaking

35. Non-communist Parties
PRC effectively has 1 party system
CCP does allow 8 “democratic” parties
Each party has special group it draws from (i.e. intellectuals)
Total membership about ½ M
Don’t contest CCP for control of gov’t
Serve important advisory role to party leaders; loyal non-opposition
Attempts to establish independent democratic parties outside CCP control have been squashed

36. Elections Held in order to legitimize the gov’t & CCP
Party controls commissions that run elections, reviews draft lists of proposed candidates
Only direct elections are at local level, w/ voters choosing deputies to serve on county people’s congresses
Since 1980s party has allowed more than one candidate to run for county positions, most candidates nominated by the people
Move toward democracy at the village level, where local officials are chosen in direct, secret ballot elections, not appointed from above!

37. Institutions of Government
Political structure of PRC seen as 3 parallel hierarchies that are separate yet interact w/ each other
The Communist Party
The state or government
The People’s Liberation Army
The Party dominates the 3
Relationship between the party & the gov’t is controlled by the principle of dual role – vertical supervision of the next higher level of gov’t & horizontal supervision of the Communist Party at their own level
On paper – organization of party & state are similar to the former USSR, largely b/c it was designed by the Soviets
In reality, China’s policymaking governed by factions & personal relationships

38. The Structure of the Gov’t
3 branches: legislature, executive, judiciary
All are controlled by the Party, so not independent, no system of checks & balances
All top positions held by Party members
The People’s Congress
Gov’t authority formally vested in system of people’s congresses, begins w/ People’s National Congress at top & continues in hierarchical levels down through provincial, city, local congresses
Theoretically: they are people’s legislatures, in reality, are subject to party authority
National Congress chooses president & VP of China but only one-party sponsored candidate for each position
Congress itself has no power, but important b/c is where Politburo’s decisions are formally announced

39. Executive / Bureaucracy
President & VP serve 5 year terms, limited to 2 terms, be at least 45 years old
Positions largely ceremonial, though senior party leaders have always held them
Currently, Hu Jintao is both president & general secretary of CCP
Premier is head of gov’t, formally appointed by president
Always held by member of Standing Committee
Current Premier: Wen Jiabao
Directs State Council (composed of ministers who direct the many ministries & commissions of bureaucracy) – controlled by dual role
Bureaucracy exists on all levels
Lower level positions held by cadres – people in positions of authority who are paid by the gov’t or party

40. The Judiciary
4-tiered “people’s court” system hierarchical, just as the people’s congresses are
Nationwide organization – “people’s protectorate” – provides public prosecutors & defenders in courts
Came under attack during Cultural Revolution as bastion of elitism & reform, & law was subjected to the leaders
Recent decades: has been revitalized
New judges & lawyers have been trained
New law codes instituted
No structure for judicial review
Judicial system remains subservient to party hierarchy
Works swiftly & harshly – with a conviction rate of >99% of all cases that come to trial
Human rights organizations criticize China for extensive use of the death penalty

41. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
Encompasses all air, naval, & ground services
3M active personnel, 12M in reserves
In proportion to population, Chinese military presence smaller than the US
China: 2.4 military personnel for every 1,000 people
US: 6.1 military personnel for every 1,000 people
Military spending only ¼ of US spending
But military spending has increased dramatically in most recent years
Never held formal political power, but has been important influence on politics & policy
All of early political leaders were also military leaders
Represented in gov’t by Central Military Committee
Tiananmen in 1989 harmed image of PLA, since military ordered to recapture the square w/ brutal force
But does still retain influence in Chinese politics
2 of 24 members in Politburo are military officers, 20% of Central Committee are PLA representatives