1. power electronics Asst. lecture:-ola hussein

2. 1.1.CONCEPT OF POWER ELECTRONICS:
Power electronics deals with conversion and control of electrical power with the help of electronic switching devices. The magnitude of power may vary widely, ranging from a few watts to several giga watts. Power electronics differs from signal electronics, where the power may be from a few nanowatts to a few watts, and processing of power may be by analog (analog electronics) or digital or switching devices (digital electronics).
1.2APPLICATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONICS:
Some Applications of Power Electronics:
1.Aerospace:
Space shuttle power supplies, satellite power supplies, aircraft power systems.
2.Commercial:
Advertising, heating, air-conditioning, central refrigeration, computer and uninterruptible power supplies, elevators, light dimmers and flashers.
3.Industrial:
Arc and industrial furnaces, blowers and fans, pumps and compressors, industrial lasers, transformer-tap 'changers, rolling mills, textile mills, excavators, cement mills, welding.
4. Residential :
Air-conditioning, cooking, lighting, space heating, refrigerators, electricdoor openers, dryers, fans, personal computers, other entertainment equipment, vacuum cleaners, washing and sewing machines, light dimmers, food mixers, electric blankets, food-warmer trays.
5. Telecommunication:
Battery chargers, power supplies ( dc and UPS ).
6. Transportation:
Battery chargers, traction control of electric vehicles, electric locomotives, street cars~ trolley buses subways, automotive electronics.'
7. Utility systems:
High voltage dc transmission (HVDC), excitation systems, VAR
compensation, static circuit breakers, fans and boiler-feed pumps,
supplementary energy system (solar, wind).

3. 1.3.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS
(i)High efficiency due to low loss in power-semiconductor devices.
(ii)High reliability of power-electronic converter systems.
(iii)Long life and less maintenance due to the absence of any moving parts.
(iv)Fast dynamic response of the power-electronic systems as compared to electromechanical converter systems.
(v)Small size and less weight result in less floor space and therefore lower installation cost.
(vi)Mass production of power-semiconductor devices has resulted in lower cost of the, converter equipment Systems based on power electronics, however ,suffer from the following disadvantages;
(a) Power-electronic converter circuits have a tendency to generate harmonics in the supply system, as well as in the load circuit. In the load circuit, the performance of the load is influenced, for example, a high harmonic content in the load circuit causes commutation problems in dc machines, increased motor heating and more acoustical noise in both dc and ac machines.
So steps must be taken to filter these out from the output side of a converter.

4. Chapter Two POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
2.1 Introduction
the power semiconductor devices can be classified as under :
(a) Diodes : These are uncontrolled rectifying devices. Their on and off states are controlled by power supply.
(b Thyristors : These have controlled turned-on by a gate signal. After thyristors are turned-on, they remain latched-in on-state due to internal regenerative action.
(c) Controllable switches : These devices are turned-on and turned-off by the application of control signals. The devices which behave as controllable switches are BJT, MOSFET, GTO, SITH, IGBT, SIT and MCT.
SCR, GTO, SITH and MCT require pulse-gate signal for turning them on ; once these devices are on, gate pulse is removed. But BJT, MOSFET, IGBT and SIT require continuous signal for keeping them in turn-on state.

5. 2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DIODES
Power diode is a two-layer, two-terminal, p-n semiconductor device. It has one p-n junction formed by alloying, diffusing or epitaxial growth. The two terminals of diode are called anode and cathode, Fig. 2.1 (a). Two important characteristics of power diodes are now described.
Diode V-I Characteristics
When anode is positive with respect to cathode, diode is said to be forward biased.
With increase of the source voltage Vs from zero value, initially diode current is zero. From Vs = 0 to cut-in voltage, the forward-diode current is very small. Cut-in voltage is also known as threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. Beyond cut-in voltage, the diode current rises rapidly and the diode is said to conduct. For silicon diode, the cut-in voltage is around 0.7 V. When diode conducts, there is a forward voltage drop of the order of 0.8 to 1 V.
When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased. In reverse biased condition of the diode, a small reverse current, called leakage current, of the order of the microamperes or mill amperes (for large diodes) flows.

6. 2.2.2Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics
After the forward diode current decays to zero, the diode continues to conduct in the reverse direction because of the presence of stored charges in the two layers. The reverse current flows for a time called reverse recovery time trr The diode regains its blocking capability until reverse recovery current decays to zero.
Fig.2.2. Reverse recovery characteristics (a) variation of forward
current. (b) forward voltage drop vf and (c) power loss in a diode.
The trr consist of two component ta and tb . variable ta is due to charge storage in the depletion region of junction and represent the time between the zero crossing and the peak reverse current IRR. The tb is due to charge storage in the bulk semiconductor material. the ratio tb/ta is known as the softness factor (SF) .

7. 2.3POWER TRANSISTORS
Power diodes are uncontrolled devices. In other words, their turn-on and turn-off characteristics are not under control. Power transistors, however, possess controlled characteristics. These are turned on when a current signal is given to base, or control, terminal. The transistor remains in the on-state so long as control signal is present. When this control signal is removed, a power transistor is turned off.
Power transistors are of three types as under :
(i)Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).
(ii)Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).
(iii) Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) .

8. switch mode power supply(SMPS) etc.
DC/DC CHPPER
In many industrial applications, it is required to convert a fixed-voltage dc source into a variable-voltage dc source.
A dc chopper converters is directly changed voltage from dc to dc and is also known as a dc-to-dc converter. A chopper can be considered as dc equivalent to an ac transformer with a continuously variable turns ratio like a transformer, it can be used to step-down or step-up a dc voltage source.
Choppers are widely used for traction motor control in electric automobiles, trolley cars ,marine hoists, fork lift trucks, mine haulers and
switch mode power supply(SMPS) etc.
They provide smooth acceleration control, high efficiency, and fast dynamic response.
Choppers can be used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back into the supply, and this feature results in energy savings
for transportation systems with frequent stops.
All converters use effective filtering on both the input and output to reduce the ac components from going outside the converters.

9. The dc to-dc converters are consists of two types:
AC Link Chopper. In the ac link chopper, dc is first converted to ac by an inverter (dc to ac converter). AC is then stepped-up or stepped-down by a transformer which is then converted back to dc by a diode rectifier, Fig. 4.1 (a). As the conversion is in two stages, dc to ac and then ac to dc, ac link chopper is costly, bulky and less efficient.
b)DC Chopper. A chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage directly, Fig. 4.1 (b). A chopper may be thought of as dc equivalent of an ac transformer since they behave in an identical manner.
Basic chopper topologies are step-down (forward or buck)and step-up( fly back or boost).Both of these may operate in single-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant modes with or without the output feedback and output isolation. Converters with a feedback are known as regulators. A chopper consists of the switching circuitry and the filter section. In between the switching and filter sections, there may be a transformer for stepping up or down the voltage.

10. 4.2 Principle of step-down operation:
The practical devices have a finite voltage ranging from 0.5 to 2V,and for the sake of simplicity we shall neglect the voltage drops of these power semiconductor devices.
A chopper is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. It connects source to load and disconnects the load from source at a fast speed. In this manner, a chopped load voltage as shown in Fig, 4.2 (b) is obtained from a constant dc supply of magnitude VS. In Fig, 4.2 (a),chopper is represented by a switch SW inside a dotted rectangle, which may be turned-on or turned-off as desired.
During the period Ton, chopper is on and load voltage is equal to source voltage Vs. During the interval TOff chopper is off, load current flows through the freewheeling diode FD. As a result, load terminals are short circuited by FD and load voltage is therefore zero during Toff. In this manner, a chopped dc voltage is produced at the load terminals.The load current as shown in Fig.4.2 (b) is continuous. During Ton load current rises whereas during Toff load current decays. From Fig. 4.2 (b), average load voltage Vo is given by

12. 4.3 Control Techniques:
Two different strategies called constant {frequency system and variable frequency system as detailed below:
1. Constant Frequency System
In this scheme, the on-time Ton is varied but chopping frequency f (or chopping period T) is kept constant. Variation of Ton means adjustment of pulse width, as such this scheme is also called pulse width modulation scheme.
Fig. 4.3 illustrates the principle of pulse-width modulation. Here chopping period T is constant. In Fig. 4.3 (a), Ton =(1/4)T so that α = 25%. In Fig. 4.3 (b), Ton =(3/4)T so that α = 75%. Ideally α can be varied from zero to unity.
2. Variable Frequency System
In this scheme, the chopping frequency f (or chopping period T ) is varied and either (i)on time Ton is kept constant or (ii) off-time TOFF is kept constant. This method of controlling α is also called frequency-modulation scheme.
Fig. 4.4 illustrates the principle of frequency modulation. In Fig. 4.4 (a), Ton is kept constant but T is varied. In the upper diagram of Fig. 4.4 (a), Ton =(1/4)T so that α = 25%. In the lower diagram of Fig. 4.4 (a), Ton =(3/4)T so that α = 75%.

13. Frequency modulation scheme has some disadvantages as compared to pulse width modulation scheme. These are as under:
(i) The chopping frequency has to be varied over a wide range for the control of output voltage in frequency modulation.Filter design for such wide frequency variation is, therefore, quite difficult.
(ii) For the control of α frequency variation would be wide. As such there is a possibility of interference with signaling and telephone lines in frequency modulation scheme.
(iii) The large off-time in frequency modulation scheme may make the load current discontinuous which is undesirable.

14. Fig.4.3 Principle of pulse-width modulation (constant T)

16. 4.4 Principle of step-up operation:
Fig.4.5(a) illustrates an elementary form of a step-up chopper. ln this chopper, a large inductor L in series with source voltage VS is essential as shown in Fig.4.5 (a). When the chopper CH is on, the closed current path is as shown in Fig.4.5(b) and inductor stores energy during Ton period. When the chopper CH is off, as inductor current cannot die down instantaneous, this current is forced to now through the diode and load for a time Toff, Fig.4.5 (c).
As the current tends to decrease, polarity of the emf induced in L is reversed as shown in Fig. 4.5 (c). As a result, voltage across the load, given by Vo = Vs+ L (di/dt), exceeds the source voltage Vs
. In this manner, the circuit of Fig.4.5 (a) acts as a step-up chopper and the energy stored in L is released to the load. When CH is on, current through the inductance L would increase from I1 to I2 as shown in Fig.4.5 (d). When CH is off, current would fall from I2, to I1,. With CH on, source voltage is applied to L i.e.vL = Vs. When CH is off, KVLfor Fig.4.5 (c) gives vL - Vo + Vs = 0, or vL = Vo - Vs. Here vL = voltage across L. Variation of source voltage vs, source curren is, load voltage vo and load current io is sketched in Fig.4.5(d).

17. During the time Toff when chopper is off, the energy released by inductor to the load is Woff= (voltage across L) (average current through L) Toff
In practice, chopper is turned on and off so that α is variable and the required step-up average output voltage, more than source voltage is obtainedThe voltage across the load can be stepped up by varying the duty cycle, α, and the minimum output voltage is Vs when α = 0.However, the chopper cannot be switched on continuously such that α=1. For values of α tending to unity, the output voltage becomes very large and is very sensitive to changes in α as shown in Fig.4.6. .

18. Fig. 4. 5 (a) Step-up chopper (b) L stores energy (c) L
Fig. 4.5 (a) Step-up chopper (b) L stores energy (c) L. di/dt is added to Vs (d) voltage and current waveforms.

19. Example. 4. 1. For the basic dc to dc converter of Fig. 4
Example.4.1.For the basic dc to dc converter of Fig.4.2(a),express the following variables as functions of Vs., R and duty cycle α in case load is resistive:
(a) Average output voltage and current.
(b) Output current at the instant of commutation.
(c) Average and rms freewheeling diode currents.
(d) Rms value of the output voltage.
(e) Rms and average thyristor currents.
(f) Effective input resistance of the chopper and
Solution. For a resistive load, output or load current waveform is similar to load voltage waveform.

21. Example 4.2. For type A chopper, dc source voltage = 230 V, load resistance
= 10 Ω. Take a voltage drop of 2V across chopper when it is on. For a duty cycle of 0.4, calculate
(a) average and rms values of output voltage and
(b) chopper efficiency.

23. Example 4.3. A step-up chopper has input voltage of 220 V and output voltage 0f 660 V. If the conducting time of thyristor-chopper is 100µs.Compute the pulse width of output voltage. In case output-voltage pulse width is halved for constant frequency operation, find the average value of new output voltage.

24. 4.5 Types of Chopper Circuit:
Power semiconductor devices used in chopper circuits are unidirectional devices; polarities of output voltage Vo and the direction of output current IO are, therefore restricted. A chopper can, however, operate in any of the four quadrants by an appropriate arrangement of semiconductor devices. This characteristic of their operation in any of the four quadrants forms the basis of their classification as type A chopper, type B chopper etc. Some authors describe this chopper classification as class A, class B, ... in place of type-A, type· B .... respectively.
The classification of various chopper configurations are shown in Fig.4.7.
There are two types for one quadrant converters; first and second quadrant as shown in Fig.4.7(a) and (b) respectively.
There are also two types for two quadrant converters;first & second quadrant and third & fourth quadrant as shown in Fig.4.7(c) and (d) respectively.
There is one type of four quadrant converter as shown in Fig.4.7(e).

26. 4.6 Switching Mode Power Supply or Regulators(SMPS):
SMPS is based on the chopper principle and works like a dc chopper. For many years the world of power supply design has seen a gradual overeat away from the use of linear power supplies to the more practical switched mode power supply (SMPS).
The linear power supply contains a mains transformer and a dissipative series regulator. This means the supply has extremely large and heavy 50/60 Hz transformers (e. g. a transformer for 4 kW has at 50 Hz a weight of 25 kg and at 125 kHz a weight of 0,5 kg)., and also very poor power conversion efficiencies, both serious drawbacks. Typical efficiencies of 30% are standard for a linear. This compares with efficiencies of between 70 and 80%, currently available using SMPS designs.

27. Furthermore, by employing high switching frequencies, the sizes of the power transformer and associated filtering components in the SMPS are dramatically reduced in comparison to the linear. For example, an SMPS operating at 20kHz produces a 4 times reduction in component size, and this increases to about 8 times at 100kHz and above. This means an SMPS design can produce very compact and light weight supplies. This is now an essential requirement for the majority of electronic systems. The supply must slot into an ever shrinking space left for it by electronic system designers.
Dc converters can be used as switching-mode regulators to convert a dc voltage, normally unregulated, to a regulated dc output voltage.The regulation is normally achieved by PWM at a fixed frequency and the switching device is normally BJT, MOSFET, or IGBT. The elements of switching-mode regulators are shown in Figure 4.8.

28. 1. Buck regulators. 2. Boost regulators.
The designer can select the switching frequency by choosing the values of R and C of frequency oscillator transistor. The transistor switching loss increases with the switching frequency and as a result the efficiency decreases. In addition the core loss of inductors limits the high- frequency operation. Control voltage vc, is obtained by comparing the output voltage with its desired value. The vcr can be compared with a saw tooth voltage vr, to generate the PWM control signal for the dc converter. There are four basic topologies of switching regulator:
1. Buck regulators Boost regulators.
3. Buck-boost regulators Cuk regulator.
4.6.1 Buck Regulators:
In a buck regulator the average output voltage Vo, is less than the input voltage Vs hence the name "buck." a very popular regulator .The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using is shown in Figure 4.9(a), and this is like a step-down converter .
The buck regulator requires only one transistor, is simple, and has high efficiency greater than 90%,.The di/dt of the load current is limited by inductor L. However The input current is discontinuous and a smoothing input filter is normally required. It provides one polarity of output voltage and unidirectional output current. It requires .protection circuit in case of possible short circuit across the diode path.

29. 4.6.2 Boost Regulators:
In a boost regulator the output voltage is greater than the input hence the name "boost." A boost regulator is shown in Fig.4.9(b).
A boost regulator can step up the output voltage without a transformer. Due to a single transistor. it has a high efficiency. The input current is continuous however high peak current has to flow through the power transistor. The output voltage is very sensitive to changes in duty cycle α and it might be difficult to stabilize the regulator.
The average output current is less than the average inductor current by a factor of (1- α ) and a much higher rms current would flow through the filter capacitor. Resulting in the use of a larger filter capacitor and a larger inductor than those of a buck regulator.

30. 4.6.3 Buck -Boost Regulators:
A buck-boost regulator provides an output voltage that may be less than or greater than the input voltage hence- the name "buck-boost"; the output voltage polarity opposite to that of the input voltage. This regulator is also known as an inverting regulator. The circuit arrangement of a buck-boost regulator is shown in Figure 4.9(c).
A buck-boost regulator provides output voltage polarity reversal without a transformer. It has high efficiency. Under a fault condition of the transistor, the di/dt of the fault current is limited by the inductor L, and will be VS/L. Output short-circuit protection would
Cuk Regulators:
The circuit arrangement of the Cuk regulator using is shown in Figure4.9(d). Similar to the buck-boost regulator, the Cuk regulator provides an output voltage that is less than or greater than the input voltage, but the output voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. It is named after its inventor. When the input voltage is turned on and switch S1 is switched off diode D is forward biased and capacitor C1 is charged through L, D and the input supply vs .
The Cuk regulator is based on the capacitor energy transfer. As a result, the input current is continuous. The circuit has low switching losses and has high efficiency. When switch S1 is turned on, it has to carry the currents of inductors L1 and L2.As a result a high peak current flows through switch
Q1. Because the capacitor provides the energy transfer, the ripple current of the capacitor C1 is also high. This circuit also requires an additional capacitor and inductor

31. Fig.4.9(a) Buck Regulator
Fig.4.9(b) Boost Regulator

32. Fig.4.9(c) Buck Boost Regulator
Fig.4.9(d) Cuk Regulator

33. Dc To Ac Converters (Inverters)
Chapter Five
Dc To Ac Converters (Inverters)
5.1 Introduction:
A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is called an inverter.Some industrial applications of inverters are for adjustable-speed ac drives, induction heating, stand by air-craft power supplies, UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) for computers, hvdc transmission lines etc.The input may be a battery, fuel cell, solar cell, or other dc source .The typical single phase outputs are (1) 120 V at 60H2, (2) 220 V at 50 Hz, and (3)115V at 400 Hz.
For high power three-phase systems, typical outputs are (1) to 380 V at 50 Hz. (2) 120 to 208 V at 60 Hz, and (3) 115 to 200V at 400 Hz.
Inverters can be broadly classified into two types:(1)single-phase inverters, and 2)three-phase inverters. Each type can use controlled turn-on and turn-off devices (e.g., bipolar junction transistors[BJTs],metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors [MOSFETs],insulated-gate bipolar transislors[IGBTs]'metal oxide semiconductor-controlled thyristors [MCTs],static induction transistors,[SITs]and gate-turn-off thyristors [GTOs]). Inverters can be broadly classified into two types; voltage source inverters and current source inverters. A voltage-fed inverter (VFl), or voltage-source inverter (VSl), is one in which the dc source has small or negligible impedance. In other words, a voltage source inverter has stiff dc voltage source at its input terminals.

34. 5.2 Single Phase Bridge Voltage Source Inverters:
Single-phase bridge inverters are of two types, namely (i) single-phase half-bridge inverters and (ii) single-phase full- bridge inverters. Basic principles of operation of these two types are presented here.
Power circuit diagrams of the two configurations of single- phase bridge inverter, as stated above, are shown in Fig (a) for half-bridge inverter and in Fig.5.2(b) for full-bridge inverter.In these diagrams, the circuitry for turning-on or turning-off of the thyristors is not shown for simplicity. The gating signals for the thyristors and the resulting output voltage waveforms are shown in Figs. 5.1 (b) and 5.2 (b) for half-bridge and full-bridge inverters respectively.
These voltage waveforms are drawn on the assumption that each thyristor conducts for the duration its gate pulse is present and is commutated as soon as this pulse is removed.In Figs.5.1 (b) and 5.2 (b),ig1- ig4 are gate signals applied respectively to thyristors T1-T4.

35. Fig. 5.1. Single-phase half-bridge inverter
Single-phase half bridge inverter ,as shown in Fig.5.1 (a),consists of two SCRs, two diodes and three-wire supply. It is seen from Fig. 5.1 (b) that for 0< t ≤ T/2, thyristor T1 conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage V/2 due to the upper voltage source V/2. At t=T/2,thyristor Tl is commutated and T2 is gated on. During the period T/2 < t ≤ T, thyristor T2 conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage (-V/2) due to the lower voltage source Vs/2. It is seen from Fig.5.1 (b)that load voltage is an alternating voltage waveform of amplitude V/2 and of frequency l/T Hz. Frequency of the inverter output voltage can be changed by controlling T.
The main drawback of half-bridge inverter is that it requires 3-wire dc supply. This difficulty can, however, be overcome by the use of a full-bridge inverter shown in Fig. 5.2 (a).,It consists of four SCRs and four diodes. In this inverter, number of thyristors and diodes is twice of that in a half bridge inverter.
Fig Single-phase half-bridge inverter

36. Fig. 5.2. Single-phase full-bridge inverter
For full-bridge inverter, when TI, T2 conduct, load voltage is Vs and when T3, T4 conduct,load voltage is -Vs as shown in Fig. 5.2 (b) frequency of output voltage can be controlled by varying the periodic time T. In Fig. 5.1 (a), thyristors TI, T2 are in series across the source; in Fig. 5.2 (a) thyristors Tl, T4 or T3, T2 are also in series across the source.
During inverter operation, it should be ensured that two SCRs in the same branch, such as TI, T2 in Fig.5.1 (a), ,do not conduct simultaneously as this would lead to, a direct short circuit of the source.For a resistive load, two SCRs in Fig. 5.1 (a) and four SCRs in Fig. 5.2 (a) would suffice,because load current io and load voltage Vo would always be in phase with each other. This, however, is not the case when the load is other than resistive. For such types of loads, current io will not be in phase with voltage Vo and diodes connected in anti parallel with thyristors will allow the current to flow when the main thyristors are turned off. As the energy is fed back to the de source when these diodes conduct, these are called feedback diodes. In Fig.5.l (a ),DJ, D2 are feedback diodes and in Fig.5.2 (a), Dl, D2, D3, D4 are feedback diodes.

37. 5.3 Performance Parameters:
The output of practical inverters contain harmonics and the quality of an inverter normally evaluated in terms of the following performance parameters.
Harmonic factor of nth harmonic (HFn). The harmonic factor (of the nth harmonic).which is a measure of individual harmonic contribution is defined as
where (Vo1 is thc rms value o[ the fundamental component and Von is the rms value of nth harmonic component.
Total harmonic distortion (THD):The total harmonic distortion. which is measure o[ closeness in shape between a waveform and its fundamental component defined as

38. 5.4 Steady-state Analysis of Single-phase Inverter :
Lowest order harmonic (LOH):The LOH is that harmonic component whose frequency is closest to the fundamental one, and its amplitude is greater than or equal to 3% of the fundamental component.
5.4 Steady-state Analysis of Single-phase Inverter :
Figs.5.1(b) and 5.2 (b) reveal that load voltage waveform does not depend on the nature of load. The load voltage is given by
The load current is, however, dependent upon the nature of load. Let the load, in general, consist of RLC in series.The circuit model of single-phase half-bridge or full-bridge inverter is as shown in Fig.5.3(a).
In this circuit, load current would finally settle down to steady state conditions and would vary periodically as shown in Figs. 5.3 (c) to (f). It ,is seen from these waveforms that
For a full inverter, the rectangular output voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 5.3 (b).For this inverter, various current waveforms for different load characteristics are drawn in Fig.5.3(c) to (f). The nature of these current waveforms is depend on the nature of load

39. Fig. 5.3. Load voltage and current waveforms.

40. 5.4 Three Phase Bridge Inverters:
A basic three-phase inverter is a six-step bridge inverter. It uses a minimum of six thyristors. In inverter terminology, a step is defined as a change in the firing from one thyristor to the next thyristor in proper sequence. For one cycle of 360o , each step would be of 60° interval for a six-step inverter. This means that thyristors would be gated at regular intervals of 60°in proper sequence so that a 3-phase ac voltage is synthesized at the output terminals of a six-step inverter.
Fig.5.4(a) shows the power circuit diagram of a three-phase bridge inverter using six thyristors and six diodes.
As stated earlier, the transistor family of devices is now very widely used in inverter circuits. Presently, the use of IGBTs in single-phase and three-phase inverters is on the rise. The basic circuit configuration of inverter, however remain unaltered as shown in Fig.5.4(b) for a three-phase bridge inverter using IGBTs in place of thyristors.A large capacitor connected at the input terminals tends to make the input dc voltage constant.

41. Fig. 5.4. Three-phase bridge inverter using (a) thyristors (b ) IGBTs
This capacitor also suppresses the harmonics fed back to the dc source.
There are two possible patterns of gating the thyristors. In one pattern, each thyristor conducts for 180° and in the other, each thyristor conducts for 120°. But in both these patterns, gating signals are applied and removed at 60° intervals of the output voltage waveform. Therefore, both these modes require a six step bridge inverter. These modes of thyristor conduction are described in what follows:

42. 5.4.1. Three-phase 180 Degree Mode VSI:
In the three-phase inverter of Fig. 5.4, each SCR conducts for 180° of a cycle. Thyristor pair in each arm, i.e.Tl, T4 ; T3, T6 and T5,T2 are turned on with a time interval of 180°. It means that T1 conducts for 1800 and T4 for the next 1800 of a cycle. Thyristors in the upper group, i.e. T1, T3, T5 conduct at an interval of 120°. It implies that if T1 is fired at wt = 0°, then T3 must be fired at wt =1200 and T5 at wt =240°.Same is true for lower group of SCRs.On the basis of this firing scheme, a table is prepared as shown at the top of Fig In this table, first row shows that T1 from upper group conducts for 180°, T4 for the next 1800 and then again T1 for 1800 and so on.

43. 5.4.2. Three-phase 120 Degree Mode VSI:
The power circuit diagram of this inverter is the same as that shown in Fig For the 120-degree mode VSI, each thyristor conducts for 120° of a cycle. Like 180° mode, 120° mode inverter also requires six steps, each of 60° duration, for completing one cycle of the output ac voltage.
For this inverter too, a table giving the sequence of firing the six thyristors is prepared as shown in the top of Fig.5.6. In this table, first row shows that Tl conducts for 120° and for the next 60°, neither T1 nor T4 conducts. Now T4 is turned on at wt =1800and it further conducts for 120°, i.e. from wt =180° to wt =300°.This means that for 60° interval from wt =120° to wt = 180°, series connected SCRs T1, T4 do not conduct.

44. Fig. 5.5. Voltage waveforms for 1800 mode 3-phase VSI

45. Fig. 5.5. Voltage waveforms for 1200 mode 3-phase VSI

47. Fig. 5.6. Pertaining (a) 1800 mode (b) 1200 mode
b) mode: Upper waveform in Fig. 5.6(b)Ior as under:
5.5 Voltage Control In Inverter
AC loads may require constant or adjustable voltage at their input terminals. When such loads are fed by inverters, it is essential that output voltage of the inverters is so controlled as to fulfill the requirement of ac loads. Examples of such requirements are as under:
(i) An ac load may require a constant input voltage though at different levels. For such a load, any variations in the dc input voltage must be suitably compensated in order to maintain a constant voltage at the ac load terminals at a desired level.

48. (ii) In case inverter supplies power to a magnetic circuit, such as an induction motor, the voltage to frequency ratio at the inverter output terminals must be kept constant. This avoids saturation in the magnetic circuit of the device fed by the inverter.
The various methods for the control of output voltage of inverters are as under:
(a) External control of ac output voltage
(b) External control of dc input voltage
(c) Internal control of inverter.
The first two methods require the use of peripheral components whereas the third method requires no peripheral components.

49. 5.5.1. External Control of ac Output Voltage:
There are two possible methods of external control of ac output voltage obtained from inverter output terminals.
These methods are:
AC voltage control: In this method, an ac voltage controller is inserted between the output terminals of inverter and the load terminals as shown in Fig The voltage input to the ac load is regulated through the firing angle control of ac voltage controller. This method gives rise to higher harmonic content in the output voltage; particularly when the output voltage from the ac voltage controller is at low level.
This method is, therefore, rarely employed except for low power applications.
(b) Series-inverter control: This method of voltage control involves the use of two or . more inverters in series. Fig.5.8(a) illustrates how the output voltage of two inverters can be summed up with the help of transformers to obtain an adjustable output voltage. In this figure, the inverter output is fed to two transformers whose secondary's are connected in series.Phasor sum of the two fundamental voltages Vol & Vo2 gives the resultant fundamental voltage Vo as shown in Fig. 5.8(b). Here Vo is given by

50. Fig. 5.8. Series inverter control of two inverters.
It is essential that the frequency of output voltages Vol,V02 from the two inverters is the same. When ϕ is zero, Vo =Vol + Vo2 and for ϕ = π, Vo =0 in case Vol =Vo2 .The angle ϕ can be varied by the firing angle control of two inverters. The series connection of inverters, called multiple converter control, does not augment the harmonic content even at low output voltage levels.
Fig Series inverter control of two inverters.

51. 5.5.2. External Control of dc Input Voltage:
In case the available voltage source is ac, then dc voltage input to the inverter is controlled through a fully-controlled rectifier, Fig.5.9(a) ; through an uncontrolled rectifier and a chopper, Fig. 5.9 (b); or through an ac voltage controller and an uncontrolled rectifier, Fig. 5.9(c).If available voltage is dc, then dc voltage input to the inverter is controlled by means of a chopper as shown in Fig.5.9 (d).
Input voltage-control techniques shown in Fig. 5.9, in which dc voltage input to inverter is controlled by means of components external to the inverter, has the following main advantage.

52. Fig. 5.9. External control of dc input voltage to inverter.
(i) Output voltage waveform and its harmonic content are not affected appreciably as the inverter output voltage is controlled through the adjustment of dc input voltage to the inverter. This method of voltage control, however, suffers from the following disadvantages :
(i) The number of power converters used for the control of inverter output voltage varies from two to three, Fig More power-handling stages result in more losses and reduced efficiency of the entire scheme.
(ii) For reducing the ripple content of dc voltage input to the inverter, filter circuit is required for all types of schemes shown in Fig Filter circuit increases the cost, weight and size and at the same time reduces efficiency and makes the transient response sluggish.
(iii) As the dc input is decreased, the commutating capacitor voltage also decreases.
Fig External control of dc input voltage to inverter.

53. 5.5.3. Internal Control of Inverter:
Output voltage from an inverter can ·also be adjusted by exercising a control within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse-width modulation control used within an inverter.
Pulse width modulation control. In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter components. This is the most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as pulse-width modulation (PWM) control.
The advantages possessed by PWM technique are as under :
(i) The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any additional components.
(ii) With this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage control.As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering requirements are minimized.
PWM inverters are gradually taking over other types of inverters in industrial applications.The most important characteristics are:

54. • The amplitude of the harmonics can be reduced by using the pulse width modulation(PWM) technique.
• The basic concept of the PWM method is the division of the on-time into several on and off periods with varying duration.
• The rms value of the ac voltage is controlled by the on-time of the switches.
• The most frequently used PWM technique is sinusoidal pulse width modulation.
• This approach requires a bridge converter with GTO,IGBT or MOSFET switches shunted by an anti-parallel connected diode.The diode allows current flow in the opposite direction when the switch is open. And these freewheeling diodes prevent inductive current interruption. This provides protection against transient overvoltage, which may cause reverse breakdown of the switches.
• The switches in this converter are controlled by gate pulses.
• The gate signal contains several pulses distributed along the half-cycle. A typical PWM waveform is shown in Figure 5.10

55. • The control circuit produces the gate pulse train by generation of a triangular carrier wave and a sinusoidal reference signal.(or any reference signal
• The two signals are compared, and when the carrier wave is larger than the reference signal,the gate signal is positive and when the carrier wave is smaller than the reference signal, the gate signal is zero, This results in a gate pulse with variable width.
Fig.5.10 shows the carrier wave and reference sine wave.And depicts the resulting gate signal with variable width pulses. It has to be noted that several other methods are used for generation of PWM signals .

56. • The frequency of the reference sine wave determines the frequency of the generated ac voltage and the amplitude of the ac voltage can be regulated by the variation of the reference signal amplitude.
• The amplitude of the fundamental component of the ac voltage is:
Where m is the modulation index.
Some different PWM techniques are:
(a)Single-pulse modulation(Fig.5.12(a) .(b)Multiple-pulse modulation (Fig5.12(b). (c) Sinusoidal-pulse modulation (Fig.12(c) .

57. (a) Single-pulse modulation (SPM)
(b) Multiple-pulse modulation (MPM)
The three PWM techniques listed above differ from each other in the harmonic content in their respective 0utput voltages. Thus, choice of a particular PWM technique depends upon the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output voltage.
(c )sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)

58. Example5.2. The single-phase half-bridge inverter has a resistive load of R=2.4 Ω and thc dc input voltage is Vs =48V. Determine (a) the rms output voltage at the fundamental frequency V01.(b) the output power (c) the average and peak currents of each transistor. (d) the peak reverse blocking voltage and current of each transistor, (e) the THD. (f) the HF and of the LOH. Repeat for bridge inverter.

59. Example5.3. A single-phase half-bridge inverter has load R =2Ω and dc source voltage Vs/2 =115V.
(a) Sketch the waveforms for vo, load current i01 currents through thyristor 1 and diode1and voltage across thyristor TI. Harmonics other than fundamental component are neglected.Indicate the devices that conduct during different intervals of one cycle.
Find the power delivered to load due to fundamental current.
Calculate THD and HF.
Example5.4. A single-phase full- bridge inverter is fed from a dc source such that fundamental component of output voltage is 230 V. Find the rms value of thyristor and diode currents for the following loads:
(a)R=2 Ω (b)R=2 Ω, XL=8 Ω, Xc=6 Ω.