1. Variation of Parameters
A Lecture in ENGIANA

2. Background
The procedure used to find a particular solution yp of a linear first-order differential equation on an interval is applicable to linear higher-order DEs as well.
To adapt the method of variation of parameters to a linear second-order DE
we rewrite the equation into standard form:

3. Assumptions We seek a solution of the form
where y1 and y2 form a fundamental set of solutions on an interval of the associated homogeneous form.
Differentiating twice, we get

4. Assumptions
Substituting yp and its derivatives into the standard form of a second order DE and grouping terms yields

5. Assumptions

6. Assumptions
Because we seek to determine two unknown functions u1 and u2, we need two independent equations. We can obtain these equations by making the assumption that y1u1’ + y2u2’ = 0.

7. Assumptions

9. Assumptions
The functions u1 and u2 are found by integrating u1’ and u2’, respectively.
The determinant W is the Wronskian of y1 and y2.
By linear independence of y1 and y2 on an interval, we know that W(y1(x), y2(x))  0 for every x in the interval.

10. Summary of the Method
Usually, it is not a good idea to memorize formulas in lieu of understanding a procedure.
However, the foregoing procedure is too long and complicated to use each time we wish to solve a differential equation.
In this case, it is more efficient to simply use formulas.

11. Summary of the Method Step 1. Put a2y’’ + a1y’ + a0y = g(x) into
the standard form
y’’ + Py’ + Qy = f(x).
Step 2. Find the complementary function yc = c1y1 + c2y2.
Step 3. Compute the Wronksian
W(y1(x), y2(x)).
Step 4. Compute for W1 and W2.

12. Summary of the Method
Step 5. Solve for u1 and u2 by integrating u1’ = W1/W and u2’ = W2/W.
Step 6. Express the particular solution as
yp = u1y1 + u2y2
Step 7. The general solution of the equation is then
y = yc + yp.

13. Example
Find the general solution of
(D2 + 1)y = cscx.

19. Note on constants of integration
When computing the indefinite integrals of u1’ and u2’, we need not introduce any constants. This is because
y = yc + yp
= c1y1 + c2y2 + (u1 + a1)y1 + (u2 + a2)y2
= (c1 + a1)y1 + (c2 + a2)y2 + u1y1 + u2y2
= C1y1 + C2y2 + u1y1 + u2y2

20. Example
Find the general solution of
y’’ + 2y’ + y = e-tlnt.

27. Higher-Order Equations
The variation of parameters method for non-homogeneous second-order differential equations can be generalized to linear nth-order equations that have been put into the standard form

30. Example
Find the general solution of
y’’’ + y’ = tanx

36. Remarks
The variation of parameters method has a distinct advantage over the method of undetermined coefficients in that it will always yield a particular solution yp provided that the associated homogeneous equation can be solved.

37. Examples & Exercises Find the general solution of the following:
(D2 + 1)y = sec3x
(D2 + 1)y = tanx
(D2 + 1)y = secxcscx
(D2 – 2D + 1)y = e2x(ex+1)-2
(D2 – 3D + 2)y = cos(e-x)
(D2 – 1)y = e-2xsin(e-x)
y’’’ – y’ = x [use VOP and compare with MUC]