1. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb CHAPER 9 Automotive Transportation

2. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.1 The number of registered highway vehicles and their annual fuel consumption in the United States for the period 1960–2006. (Data from the National Highway Traffic Administration, 2009.)

3. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.2 A sketch (a) of the mechanical action of a reciprocating internal combustion engine and the four piston strokes of the four-stroke cycle engine: (b) outward power stroke, (c) inward exhaust stroke, (d) outward intake stroke, and (e) inward compression stroke.

4. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.3 Sketch of the pressure, as a function of volume, in a four-stroke cycle SI engine cylinder.

5. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.4 A sketch of the brake mean effective pressure p bmep and brake power P p of an SI engine at wide-open throttle, as a function of engine speed N.

6. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.5 A sketch of contours of engine efficiency η e as a function of engine speed N and brake mean effective pressure for an SI engine. Contour values are expressed as a percentage of the maximum value.

7. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.6 A sketch of the maximum engine power provided by a four-speed transmission as a function of vehicle speed (solid lines). The dash–dot line is the steady speed vehicle power requirement. Contours of relative engine thermal efficiency for lesser power operation in fourth gear are shown as dotted lines, with the 100%peak being marked by +.

8. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.7 U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standard for light-duty (passenger) vehicles for 1978–2008 (solid line) and proposed standard for 2011–2016 (dotted line).

9. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.8 U.S.EPA 2010 driving cycles for evaluating emissions and fuel economy. Upper curve: Urban driving cycle (17.8-km length, 31.2-min duration, 34.1-km/h average speed, 91-km/h maximum speed). Lower curve: Highway driving cycle (16.5-km length, 12.7-min duration, 78.5-km/h average speed, 96.4-km/h maximum speed). (Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.)

10. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.9 Left: Artist’s sketch of the interior layout of the fuel cell (center) and liquid hydrogen fuel tank (rear) in the NECAR 4 vehicle. Right: The NEBUS municipal bus, showing the fuel cell in the lower rear and the hydrogen gas storage tanks on the roof.

11. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.10 A sketch of the mass of exhaust gas pollutants, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO), and hydrocarbons (HC), in a typical SI engine, as a function of the air/fuel ratio.

12. Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Energy and the Environment James A. Fay / Dan S. Golomb FIGURE 9.11 A sketch of the catalytic efficiency for CO and HC oxidation and NO reduction in a three-way catalytic converter as a function of the air/fuel ratio.