1. Chapter Five Critical Perspectives on Theory Development Copyright © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. Initial Distinction Though post-positivists and interpretive theorists differ in many ways, both hold the general goal of representing aspects of the social world Though post-positivists and interpretive theorists differ in many ways, both hold the general goal of representing aspects of the social world In contrast, critical theorists want to move beyond representation to be active agents of reform and change In contrast, critical theorists want to move beyond representation to be active agents of reform and change

3. Critical Theory: An overview Key issues/terms: Key issues/terms: –Power (social), subordination –Empowerment, resistance –Liberation “Theories”: Multi-method, different ontologies & epistemologies “Theories”: Multi-method, different ontologies & epistemologies –Marxism –Feminism –Cultural Studies –Postmodernism

4. Overview In sum, not all critical theorists feel the same about: In sum, not all critical theorists feel the same about: –How power is defined or held –Whether pop culture is worthwhile of study –How “radical” research politics should be –What constitutes reality or knowledge –How research should be done (and what counts as data

5. Historical Roots: The Influence of Marxism Early work of Karl Marx influenced by Hegel Early work of Karl Marx influenced by Hegel Saw the external world as humanly created, then reified and seen as objective Saw the external world as humanly created, then reified and seen as objective This process of objectification and reification serves as a source of alienation for the individual This process of objectification and reification serves as a source of alienation for the individual

6. Marxism (cont’d) Georg Wilhelm Hegel: Georg Wilhelm Hegel: –Hegel’s dialectic Individual Experience Outside World

7. Marxism (cont’d) Karl Marx: Karl Marx: –Marx’s dialectic Thesis Antithesis Synthesis

8. Marxism (cont’d) Karl Marx: Karl Marx: –Dialectical Materialism Thesis Antithesis Synthesis Thesis

9. Karl Marx: Karl Marx: –Alienation –Objectification and reification of social world (idealism) –Dialectical materialism: Historical progress (realism) –Means and modes of production –3 Cs: Capital, commodification, cheap labor –Haves (bourgeoisie) & have-nots (proletariat) –Base (substructure) & superstructure

10. A summary of Marx The “later Marx” developed a more realist view of the social world in a materialist view of the social world The “later Marx” developed a more realist view of the social world in a materialist view of the social world The economic substructure (modes and means of production) is seen as influencing superstructure factors such as culture and politics The economic substructure (modes and means of production) is seen as influencing superstructure factors such as culture and politics Substructure and superstructure are sources of alienation and require critique Substructure and superstructure are sources of alienation and require critique

11. Historical Roots: The Frankfurt School Founded in 1923 Founded in 1923 Based on Marxist ideology and critique Based on Marxist ideology and critique A journey of “revolutionary praxis” that included the central concepts of totality, consciousness, alienation, and critique A journey of “revolutionary praxis” that included the central concepts of totality, consciousness, alienation, and critique Originally, scientific in focus, e.g., The Authoritarian Personality (1950) Originally, scientific in focus, e.g., The Authoritarian Personality (1950)

12. The Ontology of Critical Theory Example: sociologist Anthony Giddens Example: sociologist Anthony Giddens Giddens distinguishes between ontology of natural and physical world through concept of double hermeneutic Giddens distinguishes between ontology of natural and physical world through concept of double hermeneutic The duality of structure: tension between agency and structure in social life The duality of structure: tension between agency and structure in social life

13. Duality of Structure (we’ve been here before… agency Behavior Communication Choice structure Rules Resources

14. Epistemology of Critical Theory Example: Jürgen Habermas Example: Jürgen Habermas Empirical-analytical and hermeneutic- historical cognitive interests Empirical-analytical and hermeneutic- historical cognitive interests –Critical theory defined by critical-emancipatory cognitive interest This cognitive interest emphasizes This cognitive interest emphasizes –ideology –Hegemony The goal of social science then is to… The goal of social science then is to…

15. Ideology: “The taken for granted assumptions about reality that influence perceptions and events” (Deetz & Kersten, in Miller, p. 73) Ideology: “The taken for granted assumptions about reality that influence perceptions and events” (Deetz & Kersten, in Miller, p. 73) Hegemony: “A process in which a dominant group leads another group to accept subordination as the norm”— ”manufactured consent” (p. 73) Hegemony: “A process in which a dominant group leads another group to accept subordination as the norm”— ”manufactured consent” (p. 73)

16. Axiology of Critical Theory Emphasis on agency and power in social life Emphasis on agency and power in social life Axiology of critical theory emphasizes the emancipatory capacity of theory: How is this different from other approaches? Axiology of critical theory emphasizes the emancipatory capacity of theory: How is this different from other approaches? Habermas’ “ideal speech situation” and “communication competence”: how are they “critical”? Habermas’ “ideal speech situation” and “communication competence”: how are they “critical”?

18. Three Approaches Cultural Studies Cultural Studies Postcolonialism Postcolonialism Feminist studies Feminist studiesDescribe: Main point/focus Main point/focus Key words Key words How would they see the video? How would they see the video?

19. Hall’s Circuit of Culture: “The Whole Way of Life Representation: The image Identity: People’s association in mind Regulation: Boycotts, Government control Consumption: Purchasing Production: Sweat shops

20. Critical Approaches Today: Cultural Studies Cultural studies scholars emphasize the complex interweaving of various cultural factors Cultural studies scholars emphasize the complex interweaving of various cultural factors A dominant minority can shape cultural practices through economic and political control A dominant minority can shape cultural practices through economic and political control Control process is hegemonic--those controlled are active participants in the process Control process is hegemonic--those controlled are active participants in the process

21. Critical Approaches Today: Feminist Studies Gender (and Sex) as important defining feature in social life Gender (and Sex) as important defining feature in social life Gender defines how we think, behave, and feel in a manner that is often invisible Gender defines how we think, behave, and feel in a manner that is often invisible The patriarchal nature of society can be seen in all areas of social life: especially important: division of labor The patriarchal nature of society can be seen in all areas of social life: especially important: division of labor Feminist voices are not unitary--schools of feminism include liberal, radical, standpoint, and postmodern feminists Feminist voices are not unitary--schools of feminism include liberal, radical, standpoint, and postmodern feminists