1. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Chapter 11

2. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving What is a Problem? A problem consists of several basic components: Initial state (situation at the beginning of the problem) Goal state (the solution to the problem) a set of rules (or constraints) that must be followed a set of obstacles that must be overcome.

3. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving What is a Problem? Problems range on a continuum from well-defined to ill-defined Well-defined problems: Clear and structured Initial state, goal state, and constraints are all understood; solution easy to assess. Ill-defined problems: Fuzzy and abstract Initial state, goal state, and constraints are not understood; solution not easy to assess.

4. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving What is a Problem? Problems range on a continuum from routine to non-routine Routine problems: can be solved by well-practiced procedures Non-Routine problems: unique, novel, not previously encountered.

5. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving What is a Problem? Problem solving processes can be difficult to assess, given their complexity and time course Verbal protocols : reports generated by problem solvers as they “think out loud” during the solution process. Limited by verbal ability, accessibility of processing to verbalization, and assessment

6. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving What is a Problem? Types of Problems: Transformation: Move from initial state to goal state Arrangement: Arrange problem elements in desired fashion Induction: Given specific examples, find general principle Deduction: Given general principles, draw specific conclusion Divergent Thinking: Generate as many solutions as possible

7. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Approaches to Problem Solving Behaviorist Approach Problem solving as associative learning Thorndike’s studies of cats in “puzzle boxes” demonstrated gradual trial and error learning Law of effect

8. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Approaches to Problem Solving Gestalt Approach Problem solving as mental restructuring and insight Kohler’s study of apes revealed what appeared to be sudden realization of solution, rather than trial and error Solution occurred via insight, the sudden and successful restructuring of problem elements Insight is not a clearly defined construct

9. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Approaches to Problem Solving Behaviorist view is overly narrow and rigid; doesn’t account for unique and creative behavior Gestalt view is vague and ill-specified Information processing view explains problem solving in terms of component cognitive processes

10. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Approaches to Problem Solving Newell and Simon proposed the General Problem Solver, a computer model of problem solving We attempt to minimize distance between initial state and goal state via subgoal analysis Problem solving as a search of and progression through problem space

11. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Representation Initial stages of problem solving involve encoding of an accurate problem representation Rigidity in representation can be a major obstacle to problem solving Mental Set: A tendency to rely on habits and procedures used in the past Functional Fixedness: A tendency to view objects narrowly, in terms of the typical uses of the object

12. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Representation Problem representation can be hindered by some seemingly unlikely variables Stereotype threat: A member of a negatively stereotyped group feels that their behavior might fit and perpetuate the stereotype Quinn and Spencer (2001) found that activation of a stereotype harmed women’s problem representation ability for math problems.

13. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Representation Problem representation can be hindered by some seemingly unlikely variables Stereotype threat: Member of a negatively stereotyped group feels that their behavior might fit and perpetuate the stereotype Quinn and Spencer (2001) found that stereotype activation (“women are bad at math”) harmed women’s problem representation ability for math problems.

14. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Solution Two major approaches to problem solution Algorithms: set of rules that can be applied systematically to solve certain types of problems. Correctly applied, will always lead to correct solution Unfeasible approach for human problem solvers, and most problems, because formulas don’t exist

15. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Solution Heuristics: general strategies, or rules of thumb, that can be applied to various problems No guarantee of correct solution Quicker, more efficient than algorithms Specific heuristics can be developed for any problem

16. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Solution General purpose heuristics Means-End Analysis: breaking a problem into sub-goals; accomplishing each sub-goal gets the solver closer to the solution Analogy using already-solved problems as aids for representing and solving the current problem

17. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Solution Analogies are a powerful problem-solving aid, but use tends to be limited; three things must occur: Noticing: Solver realizes an analogous problem exists Mapping: Solver maps elements of previous problem to elements of current one Schema Development: General schema underlying the problems must be developed

18. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Problem Solution Problems with use of analogy usually arise because the solver fails to notice analogous relationships Noticing depends on similarity between problems Surface Similarity: The specific elements of a problem Structural Similarity : The underlying relationships among the elements of a problem

19. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Experts Expertise exceptional knowledge and/or performance in some specific problem domain. Skilled Memory Theory proposes a number of expert advantages: Richly elaborated knowledge networks More efficient access to long-term memory More efficient encoding processes

20. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Experts Lemaire & Siegler (1995) conceptualize expert- novice differences in terms of strategy use. Experts show advantages over novices in: Strategy existence Strategy base rate Strategy choice Strategy execution

21. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Experts Experts do show a number of expertise-related disadvantages Intermediate effect: Those at an intermediate level of knowledge actually remember more information than do experts Wiley (1998) found that expertise can serve as mental set, interfering with divergent thinking

22. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Insight Insight refers to the sudden realization of a problem’s solution Related issues Does insight exist? Is problem-solving sudden or incremental? Is there a difference between insight and non-insight problems?

23. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Insight Insight problems are those in which the solution seems to occur suddenly Non-insight problems are those in which the processes of solution are incremental and conscious Two assumptions about insight It involves removal of a mistaken assumption The solution is arrived at suddenly

24. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Insight Does removal of a mistaken assumption lead to sudden solution? This is (at best) oversimplified; most problems are over-determined, with many sources of difficulty. Providing a single “hint” rarely leads to a sudden solution

25. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Insight Does incubation lead to insight? Incubation: the idea that taking a break leads to quicker problem solution than does continuing effort Although intuitive, not much empirical evidence Smith (1995) offers a contextual view of incubation Incubation will aid problem-solving to the degree that it’s associated with a change in context.

26. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity Creativity involves arriving at appropriate and novel solutions to problems Creativity is associated with a number of variables related to person, process, press, and product. Person Factors Personality characteristics Intrinsic motivation for area of expertise Flexibility, reactivity Challenging life experience

27. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity Process Factors Does creativity require special processes, or is it the result of “garden-variety” cognition? Creative cognition approach: Creative thinking can result from either or both types of processes Specific processes: Attentional deployment, memory

28. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity Press Factors Creativity is subject to external pressures and contextual factors Interpersonal factors can affect problem solving Product Factors Creativity as reflected by the endpoint of the creative process One measure of creativity: productivity

29. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity Dietrich (2004) proposes two dimensions along which creative products can be assessed Processing Mode (Spontaneous – Deliberate) Knowledge Domain (Cognitive – Emotional)

30. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity Creativity and the Brain Some research implicates right-hemisphere processing as especially important in creativity Bowden & Beeman (1998) used the Remote Associates Test to assess processes involved in creativity

31. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity Subjects were presented triads of words, all of which related to a non-obvious target word After a delay, target was presented to either left or right hemisphere. Right hemisphere presentation led to enhanced priming in pronunciation, relative to a baseline

32. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Problem Solving Creativity In a second study, subjects were presented with a word after a triad had been presented Y/N judgment: (“Is this the solution word?”) Right hemisphere presentation led to faster verification RT, indicating RH role