1. Research findings on language acquisition: Application to MLE programs Seminar on MLE Kabul, 13-18 March 2010 Susan Malone From presentation in Hanoi, January, 2010

2. Here are some things that researchers have learned about language acquisition:

3. 1. Children who are raised in bilingual households seem to have a cognitive advantage over children raised in monolingual households. BUT, children who are taken out of their L1 too soon are likely to have problems learning any language well.

4. 2. Children between ages 11 and 14 consistently do better than younger children in tests that measure their ability to use a new language (L2) meaningfully.

5. 3. Students who have developed fluency in oral and written L1 before they begin learning oral and written L2 do as well or better in the L2 than students who are taught L2 from the beginning of school.

6. 4. Learning an L2 requires (1) learning “everyday” language for communication and (2) learning “academic” language (for learning abstract concepts).

7. What do the experts say about the situation for children who do not speak the school language when they begin their education?

8. “The choice of the language…is a recurrent challenge in the development of quality education... Speakers of mother tongues, which are not the same as the national…language, are often at a considerable disadvantage in the educational system…” ( UNESCO 2003).

9. Why do the experts say that children are disadvantaged when they start school in a language that they do not understand or speak?

10. It is obvious…that learning in a language which is not one’s own provides a double set of challenges. Not only is there the challenge of learning the new language but also that of learning new knowledge contained in that language… ( UNESCO. 2003).

11. …it has been demonstrated that classroom use of a language which is not the language already spoken by the child, results in cognitive and pedagogical difficulties (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2001. http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html

12. Why do the experts say it’s best for children to begin learning in their L1?

13. Children learn a second language better when they begin with a language they already know. Researchers have found convincing evidence that second language learning is helped, not hindered, by first building fluency and confidence in the first language…

14. …This leads to a simple [principle]: the first language is the language of learning. It is by far the easiest way for children to interact with the world. And when the language of learning and the language of instruction do not match, learning difficulties are bound to follow (World Bank, 2006, page 4).

15. A basic principle of good language education also guides good language education : The most important single factor influencing learning is our prior knowledge and experience. Good education starts with what the students already know to help them learn what is new (based on Ausubel, D. P. 1968. Page 235.)

16. Linguists and educational psychologists agree that the use of the mother tongue as the language of instruction in the early years of education has proven advantages, especially where the development of cognitive faculties is concerned. (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2001. http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html

17. Researchers have also found that… Students learn better through interactive learning methods using L1; They are also more interested in learning; Parents consider their children more respectful, more likely to be community leaders in the future; and Teachers gain in motivation and respect for themselves as teachers (from a research study of MTB MLE in Mali, West Africa).

18. What does the research tell us about the best process for learning L2?

19. Minority language learners’ oral proficiency and knowledge of the L2 vocabulary were major factors in their L2 reading comprehension (Droop and Verhoeven, 2003).

20. And again, from the research… It takes 1-2 years to gain proficiency in using a new language for everyday communication; It takes 4-7 years to gain academic proficiency in a new language. (Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002, 2004; Cummins, 2001, Hakuta, Butler & Witt, 2000).

21. What do researchers say about the importance of meaningful learning of L2 (rather than copying and memorizing words and phrases)?

22. The best language learning methods… 1) Encourage students to listen and respond to meaningful L2. 2) Allow them to speak in the L2 when they are ready. The teacher does not force them to talk and correct them when they make mistakes. ( Krashan, 2001).

23. Why do researchers say that schools should continue to use the children’s L1, along with L2, as long as possible?

24. When children continue to develop their abilities in two or more languages throughout their primary school years, they gain a deeper understanding of language and how to use it effectively. They have more practice in processing language, especially when they develop literacy in both, and they are able to compare and contrast the ways in which their two languages are used to talk about the world (Cummins, internet).

25. The most powerful factor in predicting educational success for minority learners was the amount of formal schooling they received in their L1 (Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002, 2004).

27. References Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. London: Holt, Reinehart and Winston. Page 235 Bender, Penelope (2002). Language of Instruction Seminar Series: Notes from the Presentation on MALI. Unpublished Seminar report. Cummins, Jim. (n.d.). Bilingual Children's Mother Tongue: Why Is It Important for Education? http://www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/bicscalp.html http://www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/bicscalp.html at the International Conference on " Multilingual Education: Challenges, Perspectives and Opportunities" New Delhi- India, February 05 - 08. Cummins, Jim. (2008). Fundamental Psycholinguistic and Sociological Principles Underlying Educational Success for Linguistic Minority Students. Video conference Presentation at the International Conference on " Multilingual Education: Challenges, Perspectives and Opportunities" New Delhi- India, February 05 - 08. Droop, Meinke and Ludo Verhoeven (2003). “Language proficiency and reading ability in first and second-language students.” Reading Research Quarterly 28(1). January-March (2003). Pages 78-103. Hakuta, Kenji, Yuko Goto Butler and Daria Witt. 2000. “How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency?” University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute Policy Report 200-1. Hamel, R. E. (2008). “Bilingual education for indigenous communities in Mexico.” In J. Cummins & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 5: Bilingual Education. (pp. 311-321). New York: Springer Science + Business Media LLC. Krashan, Stephen (1997). Why Bilingual Education? http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/bilingual.htmlhttp://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/bilingual.html Thomas, Wayne P. & Virginia Collier, (1997). School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. NCBE Resource Collection Series. http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/resource/effectiveness/http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/resource/effectiveness/ Thomas, Wayne and Virginia Collier. (2002). A National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students’ Long-Term Academic Achievement Final Report Executive Summary. http://crede.berkeley.edu/research/llaa/1.1_final.html UNESCO. 2003. Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129728e.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129728e.pdf Human Development Network, The World Bank. (2006). Language of learning, language of instruction: Implications for achieving Education for All. Page 4 http://www.seameo.org/images/stories/Projects/2008_MotherTongueBridgeLang/Other_ references/WorldBank_Papers/WBpaperNov06.pdf http://www.seameo.org/images/stories/Projects/2008_MotherTongueBridgeLang/Other_ references/WorldBank_Papers/WBpaperNov06.pdf