1. Melchert on relativism - 1 Relativism zConnections between Mill & relativism yGertrude Himmelfarb argues that Mill, by making truth dependent on falsity (false ideas are useful for keeping true ones alive and for finding good reasons for the true ones), tends to make truth and falsity equals. xShe argues that this position lends credence to the current relativist temper.

2. Melchert on relativism - 2 Relativism yAnother argument for a connection between Mill’s ideas and the current relativism is rooted in Mill’s individualism. xExtreme individualism fosters the view that each person’s beliefs and values are valid for him or her; there are no objective beliefs and values. Each person is his or her sovereign.

3. Melchert on relativism - 3 Relativism zWhat is relativism? yThe main ideas x1. There is no over-arching system to which one can appeal for determining what is good or bad, true or false. There are no external standards for determining goodness & truth.

4. Melchert on relativism - 4 Relativism x2. All truth and value claims are relative to either personal choice or culture. Thus all standards for assessing truth and goodness are internal to a system or framework.

5. Melchert on relativism - 5 Relativism yDifferent types of relativism xBased on level or size 1. Individual - what is good & true & beautiful is a matter of individual choice 2. Cultural - what is good & true & beautiful is defined by the rules & practices of the culture

6. Melchert on relativism - 6 Relativism xBased on area of human ideas & activity 1. Cognitive 2. Moral 3. Aesthetic

7. Melchert on relativism - 7 Relativism zMelchert ~ Who’s To Say? yArguments for cultural relativism -- the position that “custom is king” (Pindar). x1. Diversity There does not appear to be a set of universal values & beliefs Therefore, there are no objective value & beliefs.

8. Melchert on relativism - 8 Relativism Critique –1. Could attack the premise that there is no universality of values –2. Widespread agreement does not entail objectivity. – E.g., In 17th century, the majority of people, including scientists, accepted the Ptolemaic theory as true.

9. Melchert on relativism - 9 Relativism – Treats objectivity & universality as the same; they are not.

10. Melchert on relativism - 10 Relativism x2. The tolerance argument for cultural relativism Relativism enhances tolerance & objectivism leads to intolerance. Objections –(1) Relativism may enhance intolerance. – If one set of values & beliefs is equal in truth value and moral value to any other set, why not impose mine on other people? (Melchert 80)

11. Melchert on relativism - 11 Relativism –(2) 2nd objection - the self- reflexive move. If all values are relative, why place tolerance above other values? yArguments against relativism in general (vs only cultural relativism) x1. Reductio ad absurdum The dentist example (Melchert 12) The Khmer Rouge, Nazis

12. Melchert on relativism - 12 Relativism x2. The self-reflexive move again If all is relative, then the claim that relativism is true is itself relative (Melchert 18). x3. Elizabeth argues that relativism “undercuts the motivations” to become better human beings (76).

13. Melchert on relativism - 13 Relativism xA final argument against cultural relativism Which culture? (27). Most of us belong to several cultures & subcultures. zAlternatives to relativism: alternate 1 - the appeal to science (Michael) yObjective means knowledge which is tested and confirmed by science. xScientism

14. Melchert on relativism - 14 Relativism yObjections xThe underdetermination of scientific theories xFacts are not hard, raw, & cold; all facts are theory-laden. xScience cannot answer questions about morals & ways of life. xScience is a western construction imposed on the rest of the world (62).

15. Melchert on relativism - 15 Relativism ySome replies xWe cannot see facts in anyway whatsoever. E.g., we cannot see a vase a mosquito. Experience limits the way we cast our frameworks on it. xScience cannot answer questions about morals and ways of living.

16. Melchert on relativism - 16 Relativism xIt works. Science tells me a plant is poisonous, I avoid it. My doctor gives me drugs to get rid of an infection, the infection goes away.

17. Melchert on relativism - 17 Relativism yAlternatives to relativism: alternative 2 - pragmatism (Anita) xThe historical sources Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) William James (1842-1910) John Dewey (1859-1952) xThe argument Over time, beliefs and values become more adequate

18. Melchert on relativism - 18 Relativism Standards also change, but through trial & error we discover which ones work better. Some standards are better than others. More adequate for what & better for what? –Problem-solving. Problem-solving for what? –For the sake of “human flourishing” (71).

19. Melchert on relativism - 19 Relativism Objection: Ideas of human flourishing vary widely. Reply: But there is some commonality among these ideas. What are some commonalities? yAlternatives to relativism: alternative 3 - existentialism (Elizabeth) xWe may be able to think & argue like a relativist, but we cannot live as a relativist.

20. Melchert on relativism - 20 Relativism xIllustration: raising children