1. © T. M. Whitmore TODAY Early Spanish settlement patterns Urban Morphology in Spanish America Social aspects of Spanish colonial settlement Portuguese settlement of Brazil The sugar plantation economies of Brazil & the Caribbean

2. © T. M. Whitmore LAST TIME- Questions? Iberian history & the Conquest of Latin America Early Spanish conquest and colonization Early Spanish colonial labor institutions

3. © T. M. Whitmore Spanish Colonial Settlement I Initial Spanish occupancy pattern  Tie main ports to Spanish motherland Economy focused on extraction to Spain not local connections => Dual system  Euro cities with close ties to Spain  Indian areas in the periphery -- carries down to today  This early pattern still visible in the “dual economy” of Latin America

4. © T. M. Whitmore Spanish Colonial Settlement II Caribbean settlements  Fortified ports in Strategic locations  Virtual extinction of Amerindians in Caribbean  Experiments with Mediterranean animals & crops Caribbean settlements after 1519  Increasingly unimportant  Except for a few strategic locations for the shipments back to Spain  Crop & animal experiments  Imprint still Imprint

5. © T. M. Whitmore Cartagena Panama Havana Santo Domingo San Juan

6. Havana Treasure Convoys (flotas)

9. © T. M. Whitmore Urban types & functions I Mexico & Central America  Administrative cities:  Mexico City, Antigua  Commercial and transport cities  Veracruz, Acapulco, Panama City  Mining Centers  Zacatecas, Guanajuato  Agricultural Centers  Guadalajara, Puebla, Querétaro  “Industrial” Centers  Puebla, Tlaxcala, Oaxaca

10. © T. M. Whitmore Urban types & functions II Caribbean  Administrative cities:  Havana, Santo Domingo, San Juan  Commercial and transport cities  Havana

11. © T. M. Whitmore Urban types & functions III South America  Administrative cities:  Lima, Bogotá, Quito  Commercial and transport cities  Callao, Cartagena  Mining Centers  Potosí  Agricultural Centers  Arequipa, Santiago  “Industrial” Centers  Quito, Cuenca

12. © T. M. Whitmore Zacatecas San Luis Potosí Querètaro Guadalara Guanajuato Puebla Tlaxcala Mexico City Oaxaca Veracruz Acapulco

13. © T. M. Whitmore Antigua Panama

14. © T. M. Whitmore Cartagena Panama Havana Santo Domingo San Juan

15. Bogotá Cartagena Quito Cuenca Lima Callao ArequipaPotosí

16. © T. M. Whitmore Urban Morphology in Spanish America: 2 types “Freeform” mostly mining towns  E.g., Guanajuanto or TaxcoTaxco Grid system cities — virtually ALL the rest Grid system cities  Patterned on the new towns settled in Spain during the re-conquest  Central square (plaza, plaza de armas, zócalo) surrounded by:  Church  Seat of local government  High-class residences and shops

17. Taxco, Mexico

18. Central Mexico City

19. Cathedral & Zócalo, Mexico City

20. Cusco, Peru Plaza de Armas

21. Plaza in Querétaro, Mexico

22. Antigua, Guatemala

25. © T. M. Whitmore Spanish Colonial Settlement World of the Spanish (and their servants etc.)  Urban society as much as possible  Closer to center = higher prestige  Spaniards settled where wealth was to be had African World in Spanish America  Plantation slaves  As servants and craftspeople in Spanish cities

26. © T. M. Whitmore The Indian world, the so called “República de los Indios” (for high density Amerindian societies in Mexico, Guatemala, Andes)  Rural  Townships Townships  Follow old encomienda and parish boundaries Spanish resettlement (1550s & 1600 in Mexico, 1570s in Peru)  Called congregación or reducción Role of missions in less settled areasmissions  Missions of mendicant friars (Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, etc.) Spanish Colonial Settlement II

28. San Xavior de Bac Jesuit Mission near Tucson, AZ

29. San Xavior de Bac Jesuit Mission near Tucson, AZ

31. © T. M. Whitmore Spanish American Social Hierarchies Social distinctions among Spaniards – mostly an urban phenomena Racial distinctions – races separate to a degree Over time spatial hierarchy became:  Mulattos and mestizos in smaller more remote Spanish cities or haciendas;  Creoles and Spaniards in larger cities;  Indians and Africans either urban servants or in rural areas

32. © T. M. Whitmore Relative Populations mid 1500s mid 1600s Spanish250,000 (0.5%) 400,000 (8%) African 100,000 225,00 Indian 50 million 5 million By 1810 (near end of colonial period):  Spanish descent = 20%  Indian descent = 45%  Mestizo = 33%  African = 4%

33. © T. M. Whitmore Portuguese Brazilian Settlement Initial Settlement Patterns  State-sized settlements to private entrepreneurs  to extract dye wood “palo brazil”  This initial “capitalistic-like” set up failed by 1540 and all lands re- transferred to the crown

34. © T. M. Whitmore Initial Settlement Tordesillas Treaty Line 1494

35. © T. M. Whitmore Plantation Sugar in Brazil Turkish closure of Middle Eastern sugar & decrease in honey production in Europe => huge profits to be had Plantation sugar system in Brazil ~ 1540s – 1700s (dominates world’s sugar for ~ 200 yrs)  Advanced agro-technology  Excellent agro-ecology  Good access to European markets  Initially Amerindian labor – later African slaves

36. © T. M. Whitmore Brazilian Fazendas 150-200 laborers 30 km 2 (2-3 miles on a side) Cane fields pasture for oxen plots for slave subsistence woodlands for fuel mill complex

37. © T. M. Whitmore Impacts of Brazilian fazenda settlement Coastal few links inland Cities of less import initially Collapse of local Indigenous pops Huge import of African slaves => helped set racial composition of NE Brazil until today Ecological impact: deforestation, soil exhaustion

38. © T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves 1500s – 1700s

39. © T. M. Whitmore Caribbean Caribbean adoption of Brazilian plantation system Northern European Colonies recreated Brazilian system after 1640 Similar agro-ecological advantages Better slave security Easier transport to Europe Became the most valuable colonies for each state! Impacts  Soil depletion  Vast increase in Afro-origin population

40. © T. M. Whitmore Characteristics of plantation ag Old world plants and techniques Requires huge land holdings – discourages small holders Cheap labor needed Absentee owners or few local owners Uses best land Settlement is at plantation not cities Cultural/spatial/class dualism Economy is wholly export and dependent on world market “mining” of resources (soils and timber) => impoverished local areas

41. © T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves in the Caribbean

42. © T. M. Whitmore African slavery in Brazil and Caribbean Characteristics Chronology Geography  Brazil Brazil  Spanish America  Caribbean Caribbean Totals African origins Decline of slavery after 1800 Consequences of plantation/slave agriculture Consequences of plantation/slave agriculture

43. © T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves 1500s – 1700s ~ 4.3 million Africans transported as slaves To Brazil

44. © T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves in the Caribbean ~ 1.8 m slaves to Spanish colonies ~ 1.7 m slaves to French colonies ~ 2.9 m slaves to English colonies

46. © T. M. Whitmore SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS BRAZIL~ 4.3 million SPANISH AMERICA 50% to Cuba (900 k) 20% to Mexico (360 k) 10% to Venezuela (180 k) 20% Columbia, Panama, Ecuador ~ 1.8 million FRENCH AMERICA Mostly to Martinique & Haiti ~ 1.7 million ENGLISH AMERICA 40% to Jamaica (1.2 m) 22% to North America (640 k) 20% to Barbados (580 k) 13% other Caribbean (377 k) ~ 2.9 million Totals are approximate and probably are underestimates. (nearly 5 m to small Caribbean islands) ~ 10.7 million

47. © T. M. Whitmore SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS 1492- 1880 1492 - 1600  ~ 1% of all slaves transported  ~ 40% of slaves in this period to Brazil; 60% to the Spanish colonies  early period slave transport ~ 125k 1600 - 1700  ~ 14% of all slaves transported  totals transported about 1.3m  ~ 40% to Brazil, 20% to Spanish colonies, 38% to N European Caribbean

48. © T. M. Whitmore SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS 1492- 1880 II 1700 – 1810 (peak of slave trade)  ~ 64% of all slaves transported  totals ~ 6 million  North America ~ 6%, British Caribbean ~ 23%, Spanish America ~ 9%, French Caribbean ~ 22%, Brazil ~ 31%, Dutch and Danish Caribbean the rest 1810 – 1870  ~ 20% of all slaves transported  totals ~ 1.9m  Brazil 60%, French Caribbean ~ 5%, Spanish America ~ 32%

49. © T. M. Whitmore Consequences of the sugar/slave system Altered racial makeup Influenced settlement patterns in Brazil and Caribbean Influenced labor and social relationships Influenced land tenure systems: latifundia vs “mini-fundia” Degraded environment and lost resources