1. AP Biology Nervous Systems Part 5

2. Important concepts from previous units: Conformational shape change triggers a transduction pathway leading to response. Actin and myosin microfilaments are part of the cytoskeleton. Calcium ions, calmodulin, is a secondary messenger within muscle cells.

3. Actin and Myosin Microfilaments

4. CYTOSOL Ca 2+ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) IP 3 -gated calcium channel IP 3 (second messenger) DAG PIP 2 G-protein-linked receptor Phospholipase C G protein Signal molecule (first messenger) EXTRACELLULAR FLUID GTP Ca 2+ (second messenger) Various proteins activated Cellular re- sponses

5. I. Sensation of Sight (The eyes are a collection of photoreceptors.) A. Structures in animals for detecting light energy. 1. Ocelli – As seen in Cnidarians (Jellyfish) and Bi- valves (Clams and oysters). 2. Eye cup – As seen in Platyhelminthes (Flatworms). 3. Eyes with a lens as seen in most other animals.

6. Eye Cups

7. Oscilli

8. a. Compound Eye– Found in invertebrates, such as insects. i. This produces multiple pictures of the same object.ii. This type of eye is great for detecting movement. b. Single Eye– Found mollusks and vertebrates. These are good for detecting definition.

9. Compound eye up close The cornea and crystalline cone of each ommatidium function as a lens that guide light to the photoreceptors. This creates a mosaic image because light strikes each at a different angle.

10. Compound eyes of insect

11. Single Eye

12. B. Retina – This layer of the eye is the site of the photoreceptors. 1. Rods - These photoreceptor cells are for seeing black, white, and shades of grey. a. They are the most abundant in all animals having these structures.. b. They possess Rhodopsin Pigment (It is a combination of retinal and opsin proteins.) i. A shape change allows for depolarization to occur in neuron.

13. Location of the Retina in your eye

14. 2. Cones - These photoreceptor cells are used for seeing color. a. They are outnumbered 20 :1 by the rods. b. They are found in vertebrates: but not all. c. They possess Photopsin Pigments (red, blue, green)

15. Rods vs. Cones (Look at the shape)

16. Rods and Cones in the Retina Cone Photoreceptors Retina Rod Neurons Pigmented epithelium Bipolar cell Amacrine cell Horizontal cell Optic nerve fibers Ganglion cell

17. II. Locomotion – (A.K.A movement) This term refers to active movement of an organism or object. A. This process is the second largest consumer of ATP energy within an organism because: 1. Organism has to overcoming the force of gravity AND 2. Overcoming the force of friction (resistance).

18. B. Types of environments dealing with locomotion: 1. Water (Organisms are swimming or floating.) a. Little gravity to overcome because of buoyancy; but much friction (water resistance). Having a fusiform (means “torpedo shaped”) body lessens friction

19. 2. Land (Organisms are standing/walking/running.) a. Much gravity to overcome; but little friction (air resistance). i. Organisms have strong muscular limbs to overcome gravity.

20. Air (Organisms are flying or gliding.) a. Much gravity to overcome and much friction to overcome (air resistance). i. These require massive amounts of energy be consumed to overcome.

21. III. Muscle function and structure: A. The main function of muscle is to provide movement using a pulling force. B. Motor unit – This term refers to a muscle and corresponding motor nerve. 1. Muscle contraction process: (How a muscle contraction is accomplished.)

23. Step 1: The neurotransmitter Acetylcholine attaches to receptor proteins on the muscle cell membrane. Step 2: Depolarization, Na+ flooding in, of the membrane occurs to generate an action potential. (This is electrical energy.) Step 3: The action potential travels along the membrane to a T tubule. Step 4: The action potential travels down the T tubule into the cell. Step 5; The action potential “hits” the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum causing release Calcium ions, Ca++into the cytoplasm of muscle cell. Step 6: The calcium ions, secondary messengers, bind with the Troponin complex.

24. . Ca 2+ CYTOSOL Ca 2+ SR PLASMA MEMBRANE T TUBULE Synaptic cleft Synaptic terminal of motor neuron ACh

25. . Myosin-binding sites blocked. Myosin-binding sites exposed. Tropomyosin Ca 2+ -binding sites Actin Troponin complex Myosin- binding site Ca 2+

26. Step 7: The calcium binding causes Tropomysin thread to “roll off” the Myosin binding sites “holes” on the Actin myofibril. Step 8: ATP is used to phophorylate the myosin heads “Hands”. Step 9: The Myosin heads “hands” grab the “holes” and pull “slide” the actin over. This is referred to as the Sliding Filament Theory. 2. Muscle relaxation process: (How a muscle relaxes is accomplished.) Step 1: Acetylcholine esterase destroys the Acetylcholine molecules on the membrane. Step 2: The Phosphorus is taken off the “hands” and actin slides back to its original position. Step 3: The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum reasbsorbs all the Calcium ions.

27. . Thin filaments Thick filament Thin filament Thick filament Myosin head (low-energy configuration) Cross-bridge binding site Myosin head (high- energy configuration) Actin Cross-bridge Myosin head (low- energy configuration) Thin filament moves toward center of sacomere.