1. Unit 8 Chromosomes Meiosis Genetics

2. Review What is a chromosome? What is a gamete? When can chromosomes be seen in the nucleus of a cell? What is this process called? What are genes? Where are genes located?

3. Chromosomes DNA wrapped around protein cores (histones) and coiled further into a rod- shaped form Only seen during cell division (mitosis) Since mitosis is occurring, how much DNA is present?

4. Chromosomes Chromatid: one half of the chromosome Centromere: the constricted “middle” of the chromosome Chromatin: the DNA and histones in the nucleus of a non- dividing cell

5. Chromosome Number Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes Adder’s tongue fern has 2524 chromosomes Does the complexity of the organism correspond to its chromosome number?

6. Chromosomes are categorized as either sex chromosomes or autosomes. Humans have two sex chromosomes: XX = female XY = male All other chromosomes are autosomes. (22 of the 23 pairs)

7. Homologous chromosomes Every cell of an organism (except gametes) has two copies of each autosome—one from each parent. Homologous chromosomes: the two copies of each autosome; also known as homologues. Are the same size and shape, and carry genes for the same traits

8. Karyotype A karyotype is a photomicrograph of the chromosomes in a dividing cell The chromosomes are arranged by size, with the largest pair being designated pair 1, and with the sex chromosomes being designated the last pair.

9. What is the sex of this individual?

10. What about this one?

11. Diploid vs. Haploid Cells Diploid: cells having two sets of chromosomes (2n) diploid # for humans = 46 Haploid: cells having only one set of chromosomes (n) haploid # for humans = 23 Which cells in our bodies would be haploid? Why is it necessary for these cells to be haploid?

12. Meiosis Meiosis: the process of making gametes Reduces the number of chromosomes in new cells to half the number in the original cell Mitosis: cell division Meiosis: nuclear division Meiosis Animation

13. Interphase G1 (gap 1) phase: cell growth S (synthesis) phase: DNA is copied G2 (gap 2) phase: growth and preparation for cell division

14. Chromatids, Chromosomes, Eiyiyi…I can’t keep it all straight! G1 – DNA has not been copied yet (46 chromosomes) G2 – DNA has been copied (still 46 chromosomes—made up of 92 sister chromatids)

15. Meiosis I Prophase I: DNA coils tightly into chromosomes; spindle fibers appear; nucleus dissolves; each chromosome lines up next to its homologue (synapsis) Each pair of homologous chromosomes is called a tetrad. Genes on one chromosome are adjacent to the corresponding genes on the other chromosome

16. Crossing-Over During synapsis, the chromatids within a homologous pair twist around one another. Portions of chromosomes may break off and attach to adjacent chromatids on the homologous chromosome—crossing- over This process permits the exchange of genetic material between maternal and paternal chromosomes.

17. Meiosis vs. Mitosis

18. Size of Genomes Does the # of genes have anything to do with the complexity of the organism?

19. Classical Genetics The Legacy of Gregor Mendel Or The Monk with the Missing “Peas”

20. The Big Question Why do children look like their parents?

21. Genetics The branch of biology which deals with heredity -or- Why do children look like their parents?

22. The Father of Genetics Gregor Mendel was the 1 st person to succeed in predicting how traits are transferred from one generation to the next

23. Why is he so important? He studied one trait at a time He analyzed his data mathematically He looked at multiple traits He used multiple trials

24. The First Generation Mendel chose true- breeding pea plants as his parental generation (when self-pollinated, always produced the same type of offspring) He crossed a true-breeding tall plant with a true- breeding short plant All of the offspring were tall!

25. The Second Generation Next, he crossed two tall offspring plants with each other ¾ of the offspring in the second generation were tall; ¼ were short

26. How to self-pollinate a pea plant

27. The Second Generation, cont. Mendel did similar monohybrid crosses with the other traits as well. In every case, he found that one trait seemed to disappear in the F 1 generation and reappear in ¼ of the F 2 plants This is where “dominant” and “recessive” come from

28. The Law of Segregation Based on the results of his second generation crosses The two alleles for each trait must separate when gametes are formed A parent, therefore, passes on at random only one allele for each trait to each offspring

29. Mendel’s Dihybrid Crosses Performed another set of crosses where he used peas that differed from each other in two traits rather than just one

30. The first generation Took true-breeding pea plants that had round yellow seeds (RRYY) and crossed them with true- breeding pea plants that had wrinkled green seeds (rryy). The F1 plants all had round yellow seeds

31. The second generation F1 plants self- pollinated F2 plants: 9 round yellow 3 round green 3 wrinkled yellow 1 wrinkled green

32. The Law of Independent Assortment Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other When a pea plant with the genotype RrYy produces gametes, the alleles R and r will separate from each other (the law of segregation) as well as from the alleles Y and y and vice versa These alleles can then recombine in four different ways We now know that this is only true if genes are located on different chromosomes or are far apart on the same chromosome

34. Testcross A cross of an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of a known genotype (usually homozygous recessive) Unknown R_ x rr If any offspring show the recessive phenotype, then the unknown parent must have been heterozygous

35. Pedigrees A graphic representation of an individual’s family tree, which permits patterns of inheritance to be recognized.

36. When are pedigrees used? When testcrosses cannot be made When number of offspring is too small Or if results of testcross would take too long