1. Galaxies Tuesday, February 26

2. What is a galaxy? Examples of galaxies:

3. It took centuries for astronomers to deduce the true nature of galaxies. Andromeda Galaxy as seen by naked eye (Al Sufi, AD 964) Whirlpool Galaxy as seen with telescope (Rosse, AD 1845)

4. What is a galaxy? A gravitationally bound assembly of many stars (+ associated planets) interstellar gas (+ dust) dark matter and dark matter. “many” ≥ 10 million

5. The Milky Way Galaxy (our galaxy!) is surrounded by orbiting dwarf galaxies.

6. The dwarf galaxies (even distant ones) are orbiting rapidly. Andromeda This shows that our dark halo is (1) massive & (2) large in radius.

7. 500,000 parsecs 50,000 parsecs Dark halo Luminous galaxy

8. Luminous dark Luminous part of a galaxy (made of electrons, protons, & neutrons) is much smaller than the dark part (made of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles). electrons, protons, & neutrons What’s special about electrons, protons, & neutrons that concentrates them at the center of dark halos?

9. “Tootsie pop” hypothesis: central luminous galaxy forms 1 st, then is “dipped” in dark matter. “Twinkie” hypothesis: outer dark halo forms 1 st, then luminous galaxy is “injected”.

10. During the first years of the universe, Dark matter (WIMPs) & ordinary matter (electrons, protons, neutrons) were mixed together. What can ordinary matter do that dark matter cannot? Emit light!

11. Consider a gas of electrons, protons, helium nuclei, and WIMPs all mixed together… n p n p p p p p e e e e e e w w w w … and all moving in random directions.

12. temperature Initially, the particles move rapidly. They have a high temperature… n p n p p p p p e e e e e e w w pressure … and therefore a high pressure. w w

13. However, the ordinary particles emit photons, which carry away energy… n p n p p p p p e e e e e e w w slow down …so ordinary particles (but not WIMPs) slow down.. w w

14. Ordinary particles, no longer supported by pressure, flow where gravity takes them… n p n p p p p p e e e e e e w w dark matter …to the densest clumps of dark matter w w

15. Astronomy jargon: “falling down the gravity well” Since ordinary stuff, made of electrons, protons, & neutrons, can easily dump its excess energy, it falls toward dense regions.

16. Modified Twinkie Hypothesis: Modified Twinkie Hypothesis: originally (dark matter) sponge cake & (ordinary matter) creme filling coexist. Gravity “injects” the ordinary matter to the center of the dark matter.

17. Computer simulation of galaxy formation: ordinary matter on left, dark matter on right. small box = eventual size of galaxy

18. We expect luminous ordinary matter (which loses energy by radiating light) to form denser knots than dark matter.

19. z ≈ 10 Galaxies have been seen that have a redshift z ≈ 10. t ≈ 500 million years The light we see from these galaxies was emitted at t ≈ 500 million years.

20. The time from t ≈ 350 thousand years to t ≈ 500 million years is known as the “Dark Ages” (no galaxies yet). From t = 500 million years to t = NOW is the “Age of Galaxies”.

21. All we can see of a galaxy is the luminous part (duh!) dwarf galaxy giant galaxy

22. Galaxies have a range of luminosities. (Milky Way Galaxy, with a luminosity of 10 11 Suns, is a bright galaxy.) Very few galaxies are brighter than twice the Milky Way’s luminosity. upper limit Why is there an upper limit on the size of galaxies?

23. Why is there an upper limit on the size of land animals? Animals bigger than 200 tons can’t support their own weight & still be flexible enough to move.

24. Why is there an upper limit on the size of superclusters? Dense regions more than 50 Mpc across haven’t had time to collapse.

25. galaxies Why is there an upper limit on the size of galaxies? Bigger clumps of gas haven’t had time to cool down. Coma Cluster of galaxies

26. It takes time for an object to cool off by radiating away photons. A huge turkey cools off more slowly than a small french fry.

27. It takes time for an object to cool off by radiating away photons. A huge gas cloud cools off more slowly than a small gas cloud.

28. Bright galaxies tend to have one of two shapes. Spiral 1) Spiral galaxies, like the Milky Way Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy

29. Stars in a spiral galaxy go around on neat (almost) circular orbits.

30. Elliptical 2) Elliptical galaxies, like the galaxy known as M87. Spiral galaxies are more photogenic, so they appear in all the “coffee table” books.

31. Stars in an elliptical galaxy are on disordered, randomly oriented orbits.

32. Spiral galaxy: Spiral galaxy: stars are “good citizens”, traveling on orderly orbits, all moving in the same direction. Elliptical galaxy: Elliptical galaxy: stars are “individualists”, traveling on chaotic orbits, all in different directions.

33. Why are some galaxies orderly (spiral) & others chaotic (elliptical)? Let’s see what happens when the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies collide.

34. When 2 orderly spiral galaxies collide, they become a chaotic elliptical galaxy. (When 2 orderly cars collide, they don’t become an orderly truck: they become a chaotic heap of metal.)

35. Spiral galaxies exist mainly in lower-density regions (such as the Local Group).

36. Elliptical galaxies exist mainly in high-density clusters (such as the Coma Cluster).

37. Thursday’s Lecture: Reading: none Stars Formation and Evolution of Stars