2. Section 1

3.  Quickly identify faulty components  Design new, efficient testing methodologies to offset the complexity of FPGA testing as compared to ASIC testing › Defect location information is an important modern strategy as FPGAs can be reconfigured to avoid faults › Increased test generation complexity › Increased test application time › Multiple configurations to test assortment of switch settings

4.  High complexity for test generation  Increased test application time  Need for external controllability and observability  Multiple configurations to test assortment of switch settings, compared to a single configuration for an ASIC › As FPGAs have more programmable switch points, this becomes a bigger issue

5.  FPGA testing has been divided into interconnect testing and FPGA logic testing  Reduction in the need for I/O pads for testing › Several configurations are required to ensure all FPGA logic is tested in some configuration  Unutilized FPGA logic and routing are being used to implement modular redundancy  Faults can be targeted for the entire FPGA structure, or those that are application- specific

6.  Need for external controllability and observability has also been reduced using iterative logic array (ILA) test architecture › one-dimensional configuration with one direction for signal propagation › A complete array of m x m LUT/RAM modules requires 4 test configurations independent of size of array and of modules [11]  Problems of defining a set of test configurations for cluster-based architectures and diagnosis

7.  The use of LUTs with logic checkers to implement testing schemes in interconnects  Using LUTs to form shift registers to easily check the output of the test pattern  Built-in Self Test (BIST) architecture to locate any single and most multiple fault PLBs › This is FPGA logic  Cluster-based FPGA test methodologies › Does not cover specific fault extra-cluster

8.  Increased defect rates  Increased device variation  Increased change in device parameters  Increased single die capacity  Increased susceptibility to transient upsets

9.  If device failure renders a bitop or an interconnect unusable, the device should be reconfigured to avoid these failing areas › Substitute good resources for bad ones › As defect rates increase, spare resources should be strategically reserved

11.  Not all unused units will be substitutable, as location strongly affects interconnections to other logic blocks  Preferable to have fewer large pools of mostly interchangeable resources

12.  Primitive logic components are grouped into coarse-grained clusters  Richness of internal connectivity means large range of potential interconnect patterns  External access to internal test points becomes increasingly difficult as device sizes scale  Cluster I/O are the input and output pins of the cluster  Tile I/O pins include the endpoint of wire segments which can connect to a neighboring tile via programmable interconnect points

14.  BIST overhead not an issue › Easily inserted and removed by reconfiguration  Test logic inside the FPGA enables test access to internal components  Each BISTER is composed of › Test pattern generator › Output response analyzer › Two blocks under test

17.  To guarantee testing of all tiles, the FPGA is reconfigured to shift the BISTERs across the entire array › All tiles will be tested by acting as a BUT  Perimeter tiles are tested by using the I/O pads to access the periphery  Total test application time is related to the area of the TPG/ORA logic  Decomposes the problem into many identical problems of a size which is determined by the test requirements for a single tile

18.  High density of internal cluster interconnect makes test access difficult  Must test intra-cluster interconnect and extra-cluster interconnect  Four classes of faults › Permanent connection  PIP off › Permanent disconnection  PIP on › Stuck-at 0 › Stuck-at 1

19.  Defines testability and diagnosis requirements of each fault and fault pair  Some test pattern must exist to detect each fault and differentiate each fault pair  All LUTs are configured as 4 input XOR gates  The detectability of each fault can be expressed as a function of the tile I/O

20.  Faulty line segment s1 must be both controllable by at least one tile input and observable by at least one tile output

21.  A faulty pair of segments must be both controllable, separately controllable, and both observable  The PIP between the two segments must be switched off

22.  If s2 is the floating segment, then the non-floating segment must be controllable and the floating segment must be observable  PIP between the two segments must be switched on

23.  Equivalent faults cannot be differentiated  Fault equivalence is determined by the FPGA configuration › Faults that are equivalent in one configuration may not be equivalent in another  Maximum diagnostic resolution is achieved when every pair of faults is non-equivalent in at least one configuration  Two faults are equivalent if their corresponding faulty machines produce the same output with all possible test patterns, at all outputs of the circuit  Two segments are test equivalent in a configuration if the segments have identical control sets and identical observe sets

24.  Two segments are test equivalent when they are controlled by the same set of tile inputs and observed by the same set of tile outputs

25.  Each segment in a faulty segment pair must be test equivalent to a segment in the other faulty segment pair

26.  Pair of faults may be equivalent if a segment which is not driven by a signal floats to a ‘v’ value  The two faults are equivalent if the floating segment is test equivalent to the segment associated with the stuck-at ‘v’ fault  The segment with the stuck-at fault and the floating segment must be controlled by the same set of tile inputs and observed by the same set of tile outputs

27.  The pair of segments involved in one fault are test equivalent to the pair of segments involved in the other fault  Each segment in a faulty segment pair must be test equivalent to a segment in the other faulty segment pair

28.  Identifies a set of configurations for the tiles acting as BUTs in a BISTER  Size of configuration should be minimized to reduce test application time  Intra-cluster configurations are defined separately from extra-cluster configurations

29.  Fault effect on a cluster input must propagate to at least one cluster output  Cluster outputs must be separately controllable

30.  Observability of cluster inputs and BLE output branches must be achieved by propagating fault effects  Controllability of the BLE outputs must be achieved through the BLEs  Each BLE is composed of a LUT and a multiplexer › Both must be configured › Each LUT acts as a 4-input XOR gate › Good controllability because output value can be determined by controlling any single input › Good observability because a fault effect on any input will propagate to output  Majority of test configurations bypass the flip-flop › A single configuration will test the interconnect associated with the flip-flops

31.  Input muxes determine controllability of BLE outputs by determining the function which defines the output of each BLE ‘n’  BLE output function: › All inputs XORed together  Multiplexers are not configured to create loops  All BLE outputs are separately controllable from each other, and from all cluster inputs  Each input multiplexer is configured to select data from each of its inputs in at least one configuration  There is a sensitized path from each cluster input stem to a cluster output in every configuration

34.  Defines current flow paths through the extra-cluster interconnect  Modeled as a flow graph  Create flow paths between tile I/O nodes which allow the detection criteria of each fault to be satisfied in at least one configuration  Flow paths are created from tile I/Os to every cluster input, and from every cluster output to tile I/Os

38.  Assumptions › Cluster inputs and outputs are equally distributed around the sides of the cluster › Each cluster I/O on the north face may connect to all horizontal tracks via a set of PIPs › West face I/O connects to all vertical tracks › Cluster I/O for east and south faces connect directly to tracks in neighboring tiles  Results › Intra-cluster configuration, and two sets of extra-cluster configuration  Extra-Cluster (specific) is for when the fault independent algorithm has reached its coverage limit › By using the fault specific extra-cluster configuration algorithm, 100% fault coverage can be guaranteed  At a cost of increased number of configurations › Fault Coverage Achieved › Percent of fault pairs which are differentiated across all configurations  A small set of test configurations can detect and diagnose nearly all targeted interconnect faults

40.  Approach is encompassing, can guarantee 100% fault detection › Does require good deal of computation time for extra-cluster  Does a good job of describing fault classes › I personally believe they could have described it using less mathematical jargon, so that it would make more sense to a digital logic engineer  Algorithms are described neatly in pseudocode  All details are covered

41. Section 2

42.  Let’s discuss the logical ways to test circuitry for the various faults › Permanent open › Permanent closed › Stuck-at 0 › Stuck-at 1  How could you design test patterns without access to all internal signals?

43.  Algorithms › Intra-cluster › Extra-cluster

44.  Defect mapping  Annealing placers › Marks physical location of defective units as  Costly  Invalid  Routers › Marks wires and switches that are defective as  In use  High cost  Avoids these defective components of the FPGA

45.  Parity