1. © Eric Yu 2001 1 Business Processes (from Steve Easterbrook RE slides)  Business Process Automation  Leave existing business processes as they are  Look for opportunities to automate parts of the process  Can make an organisation more efficient; has least impact on the business  Business Process Improvement  Make moderate changes to the way the organisation operates  E.g. improve efficiency and/or effectiveness of existing process  Techniques: Duration analysis; activity-based costing; benchmarking  Business Process Reengineering  Fundamental change to the way the organisation operates  Techniques:  Outcome analysis - focus on the real outcome from the customer’s perspective  Technology analysis - look for opportunities to exploit new technology  Activity elimination - consider each activity in turn as a candidate for elimination

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5. 5 Agent Oriented Software Development References http://www.cs.toronto.edu/km/istar http://www.cs.toronto.edu/km/OME http://www.fis.utoronto.ca/~yu

6. © Eric Yu 2001 6 Agent-Oriented Software Situated / Pro-active  sense the environment and perform actions that change the environment Autonomous  have control over their own actions and internal states  can act without direct intervention from humans Flexible  responsive to changes in environment, goal-oriented, opportunistic, take initiatives Social  interact with other artificial agents and humans to complete their tasks and help others Jennings, Sycara, Wooldridge (1998) A Roadmap of Agent Research & Development. Autonomous Agents & Multi-Agent Systems journal.

7. © Eric Yu 2001 7 But why Agent Orientation? The “world” (application environment) has become more distributed, autonomous, networked…  I.e. the agent properties are being found in the world.  E.g. E-commerce, e-health, e-learning, groupwork, kn mgt Question is: how to make the software systems meet these desired properties (in the world) That’s the job of RE (and SE).  But previously, no way of expressing these properties.  RE languages need to be social, intentional.  Most AOSE methodologies focus the system, not on relationship to the world

8. © Eric Yu 2001 8 Requirements Engineering relationship between system and environment.  Bubenko (1980), Greenspan (1982), Jackson (1983)… Traditional focus:  consistency, completeness, …  e.g., “Three Dimensions of RE” Pohl (1993) informal -> formal (representation) opaque -> complete (specification) personal view -> common view (agreement)  Suitable for a more stable, non-distributed world Recent:  goals, scenarios, agents  See overview in van Lamsweerde (ICSE 2000)

9. © Eric Yu 2001 9 Ubiquity The continual reduction in cost of computing capability has made it possible to introduce processing power into places and devices that would have once been uneconomic As processing capability spreads, sophistication (and intelligence of a sort) becomes ubiquitous What could benefit from having a processor embedded in it…?

10. © Eric Yu 2001 10 Interconnection Computer systems today no longer stand alone, but are networked into large distributed systems The internet is an obvious example, but networking is spreading its ever-growing tentacles… Since distributed and concurrent systems have become the norm, some researchers are putting forward theoretical models that portray computing as primarily a process of interaction

11. © Eric Yu 2001 11 Intelligence The complexity of tasks that we are capable of automating and delegating to computers has grown steadily If you don’t feel comfortable with this definition of “intelligence”, it’s probably because you are a human

12. © Eric Yu 2001 12 Delegation Computers are doing more for us – without our intervention We are giving control to computers, even in safety critical tasks One example: fly-by-wire aircraft, where the machine’s judgment may be trusted more than an experienced pilot Next on the agenda: fly-by-wire cars, intelligent braking systems, cruise control that maintains distance from car in front…

13. © Eric Yu 2001 13 Human Orientation The movement away from machine-oriented views of programming toward concepts and metaphors that more closely reflect the way we ourselves understand the world Programmers (and users!) relate to the machine differently Programmers conceptualize and implement software in terms of higher-level – more human- oriented – abstractions

14. © Eric Yu 2001 14 Global Computing What techniques might be needed to deal with systems composed of 10 10 processors? Don’t be deterred by its seeming to be “science fiction” Hundreds of millions of people connected by email / Social Networks even over the phone once seemed to be “science fiction”… Let’s assume that current software development models can’t handle this…

15. © Eric Yu 2001 15 Where does it bring us? Delegation and Intelligence imply the need to build computer systems that can act effectively on our behalf This implies: –The ability of computer systems to act independently –The ability of computer systems to act in a way that represents our best interests while interacting with other humans or systems

16. © Eric Yu 2001 16 Interconnection and Distribution Interconnection and Distribution have become core motifs in IT But Interconnection and Distribution, coupled with the need for systems to represent our best interests, implies systems that can cooperate and reach agreements (or even compete) with other systems that have different interests (much as we do with other people)

17. © Eric Yu 2001 17 Agents, a Definition An agent is a computer system that is capable of independent action on behalf of its user or owner (figuring out what needs to be done to satisfy design objectives, rather than constantly being told) An Agent can be Software, Hardware and People working together to achieve a goal

18. © Eric Yu 2001 18 Multiagent Systems, a Definition A multiagent system is one that consists of a number of agents, which interact with one- another In the most general case, agents will be acting on behalf of users with different goals and motivations To successfully interact, they will require the ability to cooperate, coordinate, and negotiate with each other, much as people do

19. © Eric Yu 2001 19 Spacecraft Control When a space probe makes its long flight from Earth to the outer planets, a ground crew is usually required to continually track its progress, and decide how to deal with unexpected eventualities. This is costly and, if decisions are required quickly, it is simply not practicable. For these reasons, organizations like NASA are seriously investigating the possibility of making probes more autonomous — giving them richer decision making capabilities and responsibilities. This is not fiction: NASA’s DS1 has done it!

20. © Eric Yu 2001 20 Air Traffic Control “A key air-traffic control system…suddenly fails, leaving flights in the vicinity of the airport with no air-traffic control support. Fortunately, autonomous air-traffic control systems in nearby airports recognize the failure of their peer, and cooperate to track and deal with all affected flights.” Systems taking the initiative when necessary Agents cooperating to solve problems beyond the capabilities of any individual agent

21. © Eric Yu 2001 21 A typical process model … but we need deeper understanding! Automobile insurance claims example

22. © Eric Yu 2001 22 … a deeper understanding about processes Car owner wants car to be repaired Insurance company wants to minimize claims payout Car owner wants fair appraisal of repairs Insurance agent wants to maintain good customer relations

23. © Eric Yu 2001 23 Modelling Strategic Actor Relationships and Rationales - the i* modelling framework –have goals, beliefs, abilities, commitments –depend on each other for goals to be achieved, tasks to be performed, resources to be furnished –are semi-autonomous -- not fully knowable / controllable

24. © Eric Yu 2001 24 Strategic Dependency Relationship Actor A I want … Actor B I can … DD Car Be Repaired

25. © Eric Yu 2001 25 i* objectives, premises, key concepts Actors are semi-autonomous, partially knowable Strategic actors, intentional dependencies have choice, reasons about alternate means to ends means-ends alternatives DD wants and abilities

26. © Eric Yu 2001 26 i* modeling 1.explicit intentionality  goals 2. implicit intentionality  agents functional decomposition means-ends alternatives wants and abilities inputs outputs DD

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32. © Eric Yu 2001 32 Development-World model refers to and reasons about… Operational-World models Alt-1 Alt-2 To-be As-is Strategic Rationale Model Strategic Dependency Models

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36. © Eric Yu 2001 36 Softgoal Operationalizations: Contribution Relationship Side-effects to softgoals: Correlation Relationship

37. © Eric Yu 2001 37 Analysis and Design Support opportunities and vulnerabilities –ability, workability, viability, believability –insurance, assurance, enforceability –node and loop analysis design issues –raising, evaluating, justifying, settling –based on qualitative reasoning [Chung Nixon Yu Mylopoulos (2000) Non-Functional Requirements in Software Engineering. Kluwer Academic Publishers.]

38. © Eric Yu 2001 38 Another Example: Meeting Scheduler From: E. Yu. Towards Modelling and Reasoning Support for Early- Phase Requirements Engineering 3rd IEEE Int. Symp. on Requirements Engineering (RE'97) Jan. 6- 8, 1997, Washington D.C., USA. pp. 226-235.

39. © Eric Yu 2001 39 “Strategic Dependency” Model Meeting Scheduling Example [Yu RE97]

40. © Eric Yu 2001 40 Revealing goals, finding alternatives Ask “Why”, “How”, “How else”

41. © Eric Yu 2001 41 Scheduling meeting …with meeting scheduler

42. © Eric Yu 2001 42 “Strategic Rationale” Model with Meeting Scheduler SR2

43. © Eric Yu 2001 43 Analyzing vulnerabilities Example of enforcement mechanism –Reciprocal dependency Loop analysis

44. © Eric Yu 2001 44 Strategic Modelling for Enterprise Integration

45. © Eric Yu 2001 45 Consider one very successful enterprise... important organizational and social aspects are missing in conventional models

46. © Eric Yu 2001 46 A Strategic Dependency Model actor goal dependency task dependency resource dependency softgoal dependency LEGEND

47. © Eric Yu 2001 47 Wants and Abilities I want... I can provide...

48. © Eric Yu 2001 48 Some strategic dependencies between IKEA and its customers

49. © Eric Yu 2001 49 Roles, Positions, Agents A Strategic Dependency model showing reward structure for improving performance, based on an example in [Majchrzak96] agent position role LEGEND

50. © Eric Yu 2001 50 For downloading OME: http://www.cs.toronto.edu/km/ome/pro tected/download.html When prompt for username and password, please enter the following information. username: yorku password: ome4you