1. Weather & Wisconsin Forts EJH

2. Setting the Stage The Need for Wisconsin Forts A show of American Influence –European contact - since 1634 –Northwest Ordinance of 1787 –British influence and the War of 1812 Protection of American Influence –Lead mining –Trade –Black Hawk War

3. Forts in Old Northwest ca. 1840

4. Locations in Wisconsin Territory Fort Howard 1821-41, 1849-52 –Camp Smith 1821-22 Fort Crawford 1820-25, 1828-45, 1848-49 Fort Winnebago 1829-45 Fort Snelling 1819-55

5. Setting the Stage The Need for Weather Data James Tilton, MD (1745-1822) –Initial Order issued 2 May 1814 Joseph Lovell, MD (1788-1836) –Issued detailed instructions and regulations in 1818. –The “real father of weather in US”.

6. The Weather Data Daily weather log and standard journal Quarterly summaries Complied National Data

7. Daily Diary Ft. Howard June 1841

9. Ft. Crawford Ft. Crawford State Historical Society of Wisconsin Visual Archives: Album 12.31

10. Mississippi River near Ft. Crawford 1837 Mississippi River near Ft. Crawford 1837 State Historical Society of Wisconsin Visual Archives: Album 12.27

11. Ft. Howard Ft. Howard State Historical Society of Wisconsin: Negative No. WHi (x3) 23870

12. Fort Howard Site

13. Camp Smith Site

14. Camp Smith Site Heritage Hill State Park

15. Ft. Winnebago in 1831 Ft. Winnebago in 1831 Kinzie, Mrs. John H. Wau-Bun, the "Early Day" in the Northwest. Chicago: D. B. Cooke & Co., Publishers, 1857.

16. Ft. Winnebago

19. Military Road

21. Ft. Winnebago

22. Three Forts Three Forts State Historical Society of Wisconsin Visual Archives: Album 12.31

23. Ft. Snelling Ft. Snelling McCracken, Harold. George Catlin and the old frontier. New York: Bonanza Books, [1959].

25. Problems Instrument exposure Instrument quality Gaps in record Issue of observation time

26. The Observation Times Initial (1820s) –7 AM, 2 PM and 9 PM Local Sun Time Then (1843) –9 AM, 3 PM and 9 PM Local Sun Time And Then (1855) –7 AM, 2 PM and 9 PM Local Sun Time

27. The Instruments Thermometers 1820s - Wind instruments (wind vanes) 1820s - Rain gauges 1836 - Barometers 1840s – Hygrometers 1840s –

28. Epilogue Observations at forts followed by: Smithsonian Institution 1850s to 1870s U.S. Army Lake Survey 1858-1874 U.S. Signal Service 1870-1891 U.S. Weather Bureau 1891-1970 National Weather Service 1970-present