1. AP Sensation & Perception

2. What is the difference?
Sensation: The ability to receive stimuli from the outside world.
Perception: Your interpretation of the stimuli.
Generally speaking, sensation is universal, perception is individual

3. The Five Major Senses Vision (sight) Auditory (Hearing )
Olfactory (smell)
Gustatory (taste)
Tactile (touch)

4. Threshold
The ability to recognize stimuli depends on whether the amount of stimuli reaches the level of threshold.
Absolute threshold: the weakest amount of stimuli necessary for human sensory systems to recognize
Just noticeable difference: smallest increase/decrease that a person senses the difference.
Weber’s Law: Regardless of size, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for the difference to be noticed.
Signal Detection Theory: the ability to detect stimuli depends not only on the amount of stimulus, but outside factors such as “noise” and attention.

5. Adaptation
If the level of a stimulus stays constant, a person’s sensory system will be able to block out (ignore) it.
Sensory systems will notice differences in level of stimuli.
Focus also plays a role

6. Vision Most studied Humans have the most complex system
Humans one of the few of the animal kingdom to see in color
Light goes through the pupil, then reaches the lens, which bends the light to the retina
The retina contains two types of light receptors:
Rods (black/white, peripheral)
Cones (color vision: each cone responds to a different primary color)

7. Visual Problems: Issues of the Physical Eye
Myopia (nearsightedness): Focus point falls in front of the retina.
Hyperopia (farsightedness): focus point falls beyond the retina.
Presbyopia: Lens loses flexibility with age (often resulting in bifocals)

8. The World of Color Receptors known as cones allow for color vision.
Color has three components:
Hue (light wavelength)
Brightness (light amplitude)
Purity (saturation)

9. How do We See in Color? Two theories combine to explain the process
Opponent-process Theory (Ewald Hering)
Some color combinations never seen together (blue-yellow)
Overexposure to one color, will create an afterimage of the opposite color
Process of experiencing color is excitatory and inhibitory from a individual neurons
A positive response for one color, will elicit a negative in another

10. 2. Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) Theory Thomas Young proposed that color vision results from the actions of three different receptors. Proposed this 70 years before the discovery of cones Further research by Herman von Helmholtz, showed that three different wavelengths of light could be combined to form any visible color in the spectrum

11. Visual Perception
Gestalt: Attempting to make sense of the world around us.
Figure-ground:
Change blindness:
Phi phenomenon: illusion of movement (e.g. why we see films instead of individual frames)

12. Auditory
Vibrations of air (aka sound waves) are processed by the auditory system into sounds
Sound is funneled into the inner ear from the pinna (outer ear) to the eardrum, which causes the ear bones to vibrate against the cochlea. The fluid in the cochlea is sensed by tiny hairs (cilia), that send a signal to the auditory nerve which is transmitted to the brain
Sound waves have two separate elements:
Height (amplitude): determines volume
Amount (frequency): determines pitch
Volume is measured in decibels

13. Auditory Theories
Place Theory: Proposed by Hermann von Helmholtz. Certain cilia respond to specific frequencies Frequency Theory: Sound occurs because it generates a certain level of response with all the cilia. Current understanding is that all cilia respond, but not at the same amounts.

14. Auditory Deficiencies
Deafness: The inability to hear
Types:
Conduction: middle ear bones become rigid. Hearing aids can help
Sensorineural: due to damage to the inner ear. Can be helped with a cochlear implant.
Environmental (aka “notch”): Caused by overexposure to loud noise (85 db)
Illness/Genetics (e.g. Helen Keller)
Tinnitus: Ringing of the ears. The sound is internal. Results from overexposure to loud sounds
Approximately 30,000,000 people in the U.S. are deaf/hard of hearing

15. The Chemical Senses: Olfaction and Gustation
Olfaction: The sense of smell
Asnomia: inability to smell
Lock and key theory: different receptors receive different odors. Humans have over 350 different receptors for odor.
Humans can track smells (Porter, 2007)
Smell + Taste = Flavor
Both olfactory and gustatory receptors are short-lived
Last month (9/13), neuroscientists announced research that shows that humans can distinguish ten types of odors (fragrant, woody/resinous, minty/peppermint, sweet, chemical, popcorn, lemon, fruity (non-citrus), pungent and decayed). (Castro et al, 2013)

16. Gustation Gustation : sense of taste
Contrary to long-standing theory, taste buds are located throughout the tongue
Six basic tastes: Sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami, fat
What about spicy food?
Supertasters

17. Synesthesia
For most people, only two senses work in concert: olfaction and gustatory
For a rare few, their sensory systems work in a unique way (e.g. they can feel colors). This phenomena is known as synesthesia.
Synesthesia appears to have genetic components (chromosomes 2, 5, 6, and 12:Asher), and may occur in up to 1% of the population
May also be connected to autism (Asher)

18. Tactile and Minor Senses
The largest body organ:
Four different types of receptors: pain, pressure, heat, cold
Vestibular
Kinesthetic

19. Issues in Perception
Perception is learned, and is based on the individual’s interpretation of the sensation.
New sensations are compared to ones experienced in the past, which is called frame of reference
Subliminal perception: Being able to perceive stimuli below the known conscious threshold (limen). Use of this in advertising is controversial and illegal in the U.S.

20. Illusions and Hallucinations
Illusion: Mistakes in perception based on real stimuli
Examples: FDR, magic
Hallucinations: Mistakes in perception based on imaginary stimuli.
Examples: LSD, delirium tremens, sleep deprivation

21. Parapsychology
Extrasensory Perception (ESP): The ability to receive stimuli outside the normal sensory system.
Does it exist?
Well…