1. Remainder of Chapter 23 Read the remaining materials; they address information specific to understanding evolution (e.g., variation and nature of changes) Always read the Featured Investigation and Genomes and Proteomes sections of each chapter (demonstrate tie organism and molecular levels of hierarchy

3. Gene - specific location of the genetic information for a given trait Allele - The actual chemical composition of a gene. Determines how characteristic/ trait is expressed. Polymorphism – two or more forms present Allele Frequency - The frequency of occurrence of alleles in a population. Genotypic Frequency - frequency of occurrence of genotypes in a population.

4. Population – group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area (can interbreed if reproduce sexually). Gene Pool – All of the genes (more accurately all of the alleles) present in a population.

5. Genotype - specific chemical composition of alleles defining a trait. –AAHomozygous Dominant –AaHeterozygous –aaHomozygous Recessive Phenotype - physical expression of a trait –If the alleles for a trait are simple dominant and recessive, then: For AA and Aa, dominant trait is physically expressed If aa, recessive trait is expressed

6. Evolution Is a genetic change in a population (not an individual) over time Scientists look at phenotypic (physical changes), in most cases, because that is how we recognize populations. It is, however, changes in the genotype, or more specifically, the gene pool.

8. Allele Frequencies The frequency of occurrence of alleles in a population. If we use the simple one dominant and one recessive allele model, this can be demonstrated by: p = frequency of the dominant allele q = frequency of the recessive allele

9. Example AA - 30 individuals Aa - 20 individuals aa - 50 individuals p = 2(# individuals AA) + # individuals Aa 2(Total # individuals in population) p + q = 1; therefore q = 1 - p

10. Example p = 2(30) + 20 2(100) = 0.4 p + q = 1; therefore q = 1 - 0.4 = 0.6 With these values, we can calculate the probability of what genotypes would be present in the next generation if this population were to mate randomly

11. Genotypic Frequencies p 2 = probability of AA q 2 = probability of aa 2pq = probability of Aa p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1

12. Mechanisms for Evolutionary Change  Mutation  Genetic Drift (small population size)  Gene Flow (immigration and emigration)  Non-Random Mating  Natural Selection

13. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium In diploid, sexually reproducing organisms, phenotypes, genotypes and genes all tend to come to equilibrium in populations in certain conditions are met

14. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium  No M utation  Large Population Size  No immigration or emigration  Random Mating  No Selection for Traits

15. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Provides a means of experimentally demonstrating what happens to populations in the absence of evolution.

16. How Natural Selection Works Variation occurs in every group of living organisms. Individuals are not identical in any population. Every population produces an excess of offspring. Competition will occur among these offspring for the resources they need to live.

17. How Natural Selection Works The offspring best adapted to survive and acquire resources will survive. If the characteristics of the most fit organisms are inherited, these traits will be passed on to the next generation.

18. Darwinian Fitness Relative contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation

19. Natural Selection The most fit genotypes will be more strongly represented in subsequent generations Less fit genotypes will remain in the population, but at low numbers If environmental conditions change, fitness will change

21. Figure 21.12 figure 21-12.jpg * Disruptive selection also referred to as balancing selection *

22. Stabilizing Selection

23. Figure 21.13 Directional Selection

24. Disruptive or balancing Selection Example of maintaining Balancing selection – heterozygote advantage

25. Fig. 24.5a – Disruptive Selection

26. Maintenance of Variation Less fit alleles not completely eliminated Still reproduce, but do not produce as many offspring Also interbreed with more fit individuals

27. Properties of Fitness Fitness is a property of a genotype, not an individual or population. Fitness is specific to a particular environment. As the environment changes, so does the fitness of genotypes. Fitness is measured over one generation or more.

28. Sexual Selection Traits that infer greater fitness Sexual dimorphism –Secondary sex characteristics Intrasexual Intersexual Featured Investigation

29. 22.16 The Longer the Tail, the Better the Male (Part 1)

31. Genetic Drift Random events – missed opportunity, disturbance

32. Fixed Allele Bottleneck

33. Fig. 24.10

34. Gene Flow Changes in gene pool resulting from immigration or emigration random Founder effect

35. Founder Effect – colonizers establish genetic make up of new population

36. Mutation Changes in chemical composition of a gene Random Only evolutionary mechanism where new alleles can be added Most mutations are deleterious Neutral mutations add variation without changing phenotype

37. Nonrandom Mating Mating due to some attribute –Sexual selection –Similar phenotype