1. The
Scientific
Revolution

2. What is a Revolution?
A Revolution is a complete change, or an overthrow of a government, a social system, etc.

3. “Science” Before the Scientific Revolution
Based almost entirely on reasoning
Experimental method or observation wasn’t used at all
Science in medieval times
Alchemy
Astrology
More than anything else, science is a habit of mind. It involves using reason, observation, testing, and systematic thought to uncover truths about the world and about people, animals, and things in the world. “Science” as we know it today didn’t really exist before the Scientific Revolution. Instead, scientists in ancient and medieval times were really philosophers who drew conclusions based on deductive reasoning; they rarely conducted practical experiments.
Much of what was considered “science” in medieval times had very little basis in fact and drew more from superstition and religious belief. Similar in many ways to chemistry, alchemy aimed to develop potions that would do things such as change iron into gold, cure all disease, or bestow immortality. Astrology was based on the concept that the positions and conditions of celestial bodies could influence human existence, both positively and negatively. Practitioners of astrology would often claim that human suffering (including sickness) could be explained by the position of the stars.
A medieval alchemist

4. Factors Leading to the Scientific Revolution
Rise of universities
Contact with non-Western societies
The Renaissance
Exploration
A number of factors helped lay the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution:
The first universities appeared during the Middle Ages. Although universities initially focused primarily on topics like law and philosophy, they gradually expanded their offerings and came to establish professorships in areas such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and other science-related disciplines. Universities brought together leading scientific minds, encouraged intellectual debate, and sparked interest in research and discovery.
Muslim scholars of the Middle Ages made several important mathematical and scientific discoveries. During the 12th and 13th centuries, both the Crusades and the expansion of trade networks brought Europeans into greater contact with Muslim societies. Both cultural and intellectual exchanges occurred; this infusion of new ideas helped improve Europeans’ understanding of mathematical principles in particular and of science in general.
As the Renaissance dawned and inspired advances in art and literature, educated Europeans began to look beyond the church and the Bible for knowledge and truth. In addition to serving as patrons of the arts, wealthy families such as the Medicis in Italy also supported scientific research.
The Age of Exploration also provided impetus for the Scientific Revolution. The challenges of navigating across the Atlantic Ocean and around Africa motivated advances in mathematics, astronomy, and cartography (mapping). European monarchs interested in expanding their overseas empires (including King John of Portugal, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, and Queen Elizabeth I and King Charles II of England) provided funding and/or support for scientific research.

5. What Was the Scientific Revolution?
A revolution in human understanding and knowledge about the physical universe
17th century
Began with Kepler, Galileo
Ended with Newton
The Scientific Revolution is generally viewed as a 17th-century phenomenon. Most historians consider it to have started with the astronomical discoveries of individuals like Kepler and Galileo and ended with the publication of Newton’s major works. We will describe these “bookends” of the Scientific Revolution in greater detail later in this discussion.

6. The Scientific Revolution
In the 1500s and 1600s the Scientific Revolution changed the way Europeans looked at the world.
People began to make conclusions based on experimentation and observation, instead of merely accepting traditional ideas.

7. Before the Scientific Revolution…
Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer.
Ptolemy
( A.D.)
Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe.
People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory was supported by the Church.
It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to change the way they viewed the physical world.

8. Before the Scientific Revolution…
Ptolemy
( A.D.)
Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the solar system:
Earth
Moon
Mercury
Venus
Sun
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Notice, the Earth is first, and not the sun, as it should be.

10. Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied in Italy.
In 1543 Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.
In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions:
The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered.
The Earth is merely one of several planets revolving around the sun.

11. Nicolaus Copernicus Copernicus’ model of the solar system: Sun Moon
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Notice, the sun is first, not the Earth, as Ptolemy believed.

12. Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical formulas.
The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start of modern science and astronomy.

13. The Copernican Heliocentric Model

14. Reaction to Copernicus
Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to rotate on its axis.
Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the planets was wrong, then the whole system of human knowledge could be wrong.

15. Tycho Brahe
Then, in the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe provided evidence that supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
Brahe set up an astronomical observatory.
Every night for years he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the stars and planets.

16. Johannes Kepler
After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun.
Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and Copernicus believed.
Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed by man-made satellites today.

18. Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built upon the scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and Kepler.
Galileo assembled the first telescope which allowed him to see mountains on the moon and fiery spots on the sun.
He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter – exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the sun.
Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same speed regardless of weight.

19. Galileo Galilei
Galileo’s discoveries caused an uproar. Other scholars came against him because like Copernicus, Galileo was contradicting Ptolemy.
The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that the Earth was fixed and unmoving.
When threatened with death before the Inquisition in 1633, Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew the Earth moved.
Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not allowed to publish his ideas.

20. Models of the Universe: Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
Geocentric: the Earth is at the center of the universe; all heavenly bodies move around the Earth
Heliocentric: the Sun is at the center of the universe; all heavenly bodies move around the Sun—including the Earth
Derived from the Greek words “geo” (meaning earth) and “centron” (meaning center), the geocentric view were generally the view pushed by Aristotle and Ptolemy (see above). Geocentricism was officially endorsed by the Catholic Church and taught at religious schools and universities.
Derived from the Greek works “helios” (meaning sun) and “centron” (meaning center), the heliocentric conception was the most prominent theory pushed during the Scientific Revolution.

29. The Scientific Method
By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as the Scientific Method.
Scientific Method –method used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis.
Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or educated guesses, and then tested these hypotheses through experiments.
Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific method did not rely on the classical thinkers or the Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process of observation and experimentation.

30. Science as a multiple-step process:
The Scientific Method
Science as a multiple-step process:
1. Observe an object or phenomenon
2. Develop a theory that explains the object or phenomenon
3. Test the theory with experiments

31. The Scientific Method State the problem Collect information
Form a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis
Record & analyze data
State a conclusion
Repeat steps 1 – 6
Scientists soon discovered that the movements of bodies in nature closely followed what could be predicted by mathematics.
The scientific method set Europe on the road to rapid technological progress.

32. The Scientific Method Newton
Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the work of Copernicus and Galileo.
Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific Revolution.
He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused objects to fall towards the earth.

33. The Scientific Method Newton
Newton published his scientific ideas in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
Newton
He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the laws of motion:
A body at rest stays at rest
Acceleration is caused by force
For every action there is an equal opposite reaction
He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis.

34. The Scientific Method
According to a popular story, Newton saw an apple fall from a tree, and wondered if the force that pulled the apple to the Earth also controlled the movement of the planets. Newton argued that nature followed laws.

35. The Scientific Method Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who wrote Advancement of Learning.
Francis Bacon
Bacon popularized the scientific method and used it with philosophy and knowledge.
Bacon argued that truth could not be known at the beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long process of investigation.

36. The Scientific Method René Descartes
Descartes was a French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher.
René Descartes
Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding.
Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth was only found after a long process of studying and investigation.
“I think, therefore I am”

37. Other Scientific Advances…
Chemistry
Robert Boyle
In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds.
Boyle also explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases.

38. Robert Boyle’s first air pump

39. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
Andreas Vesalius
In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body.
Vesalius’ book was the first accurate and detailed book on human anatomy.

40. Medieval human anatomy drawing before Vesalius

41. Drawings done by Vesalius

42. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
William Harvey
An English scholar who described the circulation of blood for the first time.
He showed how the heart served as a pump to force blood through veins and arteries.

43. Venal valves had already been discovered, but here Harvey shows that venal blood flows only toward the heart. He ligatured an arm to make obvious the veins and their valves, then pressed blood away from the heart and showed that the vein would remain empty because it was blocked by the valve.

44. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
Ambroise Paré
French physician Ambroise Paré developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection.
Paré also developed a technique for closing wounds and stitches.

46. Cauterizing Instruments of Ambroise Paré

47. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
Anton von
Leeuwenhoek
A Dutch inventor who perfected the microscope and became the first human to see cells and microorganisms.

50. The Significance of the Scientific Revolution
Abandonment of ancient and medieval systems
Development of the scientific method
The Enlightenment
The most obvious result of the Scientific Revolution was the rejection of ancient and medieval systems in science, astronomy, and medicine. After the Scientific Revolution, many previously accepted theories had been completely disproved or discarded.
The methods developed during the Scientific Revolution would fuel discoveries for centuries to come. Basing science more firmly in empiricism made conclusions more consistent, reproducible, and accurate.
The Scientific Revolution also set the stage for the Enlightenment. Like the pioneers of the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment thinkers strove to make conclusions based on observation, logic, and reason, rather than on faith.
Though the Scientific Revolution had little immediate impact on society as a whole, its long-term repercussions can still be felt today. Perhaps more important than the specific advances in science, the Revolution represented a shift in worldview: it was an intellectual revolution that changed the way that people saw and interpreted the world around them.