Ethnicity and Race.

Ethnicity and Race

Ethnicity and Race Which of the following is true about race in many parts of the world today? (a) It is learned. (b) It is simply a figment of the imagination. (c) It is strictly a matter of descent. The answer is (a). For many Americans, race is viewed as a matter of physical appearance and descent. Others view it as a social construction, a figment of the imagination. The truth is somewhere in between. If race were completely a social construction, then the descent of people would not matter at all. In fact, there is a strong connection between physical characteristics and racial characteristics, though they are hardly definitive for any individual. For this reason, it is an overstatement to say that race is simply a figment of humans’ imagination. Instead, sociologists have observed that while grounded in the lived reality of descent, race is something more than that. It is learned.

Learning Objectives Basic Concepts
Learn the cultural bases of race and ethnicity and how racial and ethnic differences create sharp divisions Learn the leading psychological theories and sociological interpretations of prejudice and discrimination Historical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity Familiarize yourself with the history and social dimensions of ethnic relations in America Recognize the importance of the historical roots of ethnic conflict, particularly in the expansion of Western colonialism, and understand the different models for a multiethnic society

Learning Objectives Research on Race and Ethnicity Today
Learn the forms of inequality experienced by racial and ethnic groups in the United States See that the history of prejudice and discrimination against ethnic minorities has created hardship for many but that some have succeeded despite societal barriers Unanswered Questions Understand global migration patterns and their effects

Basic Concepts Racial literacy
Skills taught to children of multiracial families to help them cope with racial hierarchies and to integrate multiple ethnic identities Chapter 11 begins with the story of Maureen, a 45-year-old black woman from the Caribbean who moved to England when she was a girl. All of Maureen’s brothers married white women and had children of mixed heritage. Black family members recognize the children as biracial, the white mothers want the children to have a black identity, and outsiders will most likely consider the children black because of their darker skin. Because the children will experience different forms of racism, their family members will probably teach their children to be racially literate. Racial literacy refers to the skills taught to children of multiracial families to help them cope with racial hierarchies and to integrate multiple ethnic identities.

Basic Concepts Ethnicity Race
Cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others Race Differences in human physical characteristics used to categorize large numbers of individuals Ethnicity and race are two different but related concepts. Ethnicity refers to the cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others. An ethnic group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups. Some combination of language, history, religion, ancestry, and styles of dress or adornment are usually used to categorize people into ethnic groups. People in the United States frequently refer to themselves in terms of their ethnicity, such as Italian American, Korean American, or Jewish American. Race is also a classification system, but people use human physical traits when assigning race. There are no clear-cut races but a range of physical variations among people, so most people don’t fit neatly into racial categories. There is just as much variation within as between racial categories.

Basic Concepts Racialization
The process by which understanding of race are used to classify individuals or groups of people Can be institutionalized into exploitive political or economic systems Sociologists call race a social construct. That means that people in a society have decided that particular characteristics are socially meaningful. The process by which understandings of race are used to classify individuals or groups of people is called racialization. Racialization began when Europeans made contact with people in other parts of the world. They attempted to make sense of the different physical and social characteristics of the people they met by classifying them into racial groups. Racialization has been institutionalized into political or economic systems that breed exploitation and inequality, such as colonialism, slavery, and segregation.

Basic Concepts Racialization
Because they reflect a society’s diversity, norms, and values, racial classification systems vary over time and between cultures Because they reflect a society’s diversity, norms, and values, racial classification systems vary over time and between cultures. Although most people today would classify an American of Italian or Irish heritage as white, 100 years ago they would not, mostly because of immigration, religion, and social class status. In this photo, four schoolboys represent the “racial scale” in South Africa: black, Indian, half-caste, and white.

Basic Concepts Minority group
A group of people in a minority in a given society who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality within that society The term minority group often leads to confusion because it implies that a group is thus classified because it is in the numerical or statistical minority. That is only part of the definition. A minority group is a group of people in a minority in a given society who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality within that society. A minority group has some sense of group solidarity and is disadvantaged in terms of power, wealth, and prestige.

Basic Concepts Racism Institutional racism
Attributing superiority or inferiority to a population that shares certain physically inherited characteristics Institutional racism Patterns of discrimination based on ethnicity that have become structured into existing social institutions ExThe negative or limited portrayals of racial and ethnic minorities in Hollywood films or television.) Racial classification systems are usually hierarchical, wherein some races are considered superior and others inferior. Racism is the attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population [that shares] certain physically inherited characteristics. Sometimes individuals commit racism, and sometimes institutions do. When industries or institutions discriminate against people because of their ethnicity, they engage in institutional racism. The beating of Rodney King and the killing of Amadou Diallo by police offers revealed institutional racism in the Los Angeles and New York City police departments, respectively. The negative or limited portrayals of racial and ethnic minorities in Hollywood films or television broadcasting are also examples of institutional racism.

Example of institutional racism
The negative or limited portrayals of racial and ethnic minorities in Hollywood films or television. Ferguson issue or other similar cases

Basic Concepts Prejudice Discrimination
Holding preconceived ideas about an individual or group (either positive or negative); these ideas are resistant to change even in the face of new information Discrimination Behavior or practices that deny to members of a particular group resources or rewards that others can obtain One is about ideas, another action Prejudice and discrimination are not the same thing. Prejudice refers to preconceived ideas, attitudes, or opinions about an individual or a group. The ideas can be either positive or negative, but they are resistant to change. Even when prejudicial people are faced with information that challenges their ideas about an individual or a group, they do not change their mind. Discrimination, on the other hand, refers to behavior or practices that deny resources or rewards to members of a particular group. Prejudice is about ideas whereas discrimination is about actions.

Basic Concepts Stereotyping Displacement
Thinking in terms of fixed and inflexible categories Displacement Transferring ideas or emotions from their true source to another object Some other terms used in discussions of race and ethnicity are stereotyping, displacement, and scapegoating. Stereotyping refers to a way of thinking that is fixed and inflexible and is linked to prejudice. But people are more willing to change their stereotypes than their prejudices when they acquire new information that challenges their thinking. Displacement, which is linked to stereotyping, occurs when people direct their feelings of hostility or anger against objects that are not the origin of their feelings.

Basic Concepts Scapegoats
Individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing Scapegoating is often directed against powerless Scapegoats are individuals or groups that people blame for problems that are not of their own doing. Scapegoating is often directed against powerless groups of people because they make an easy target. Immigrants, for example, are often blamed for large-scale and complex problems like unemployment, even though they have virtually no control over economic policy.

Basic Concepts Antiracism
Forms of thought and/or practice that seek to confront, eradicate, and/or ameliorate racism Many people have tried to end racism. Antiracism refers to forms of thought and/or practice that seek to confront, eradicate, and/or ameliorate racism. One example of institutionalized antiracism in the United States and many other countries is affirmative action. Individuals may also engage in political and social protest to change practices, attitudes, and institutions that engage in institutional racism. Across the world there are social movements dedicated to antiracism entirely or as part of a larger mission.

Historical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity
people from Europe and Africa…. As the textbook explained earlier in this chapter, Europeans first engaged in racialization as a way to understand the physical and cultural diversity they observed during their explorations to different parts of the world. Global Map 11.1 displays the movement of to the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand. Europeans moved freely to different parts of the world, but Africans were transported unwillingly to be enslaved in North and South America. The ethnic and racial diversity that resulted in the new settlements led to conflict and tension over the relationship between ethnic minority groups and the majority population. Most Europeans believed they were racially, morally, and culturally superior to native or enslaved populations.

Historical Perspectives on
Understanding the current racial and ethnic demographics of the United States is important to a discussion of racism. This figure shows that approximately 64 percent of the population is white, 16 percent Hispanic or Latino, 13 percent black, 5 percent Asian, 3 percent multiracial, 1 percent American Indian or Alaska Native, 0.2 percent Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 6 percent in other racial categories.

The Rise of Racism Exploitive relations with conquered peoples European beliefs that white symbolized purity and black/others symbolized evil Belief that race was inherited and associated with superiority or inferiority One of the reasons that racism has flourished is that European belief systems justified exploitive relations with the people they conquered. European beliefs that Africans belonged to an inferior race justified their transport to and enslavement in the Americas, just as it legitimated colonialism in Africa and elsewhere. A second reason that racism has flourished is that Europeans have long associated the colors white with purity and black with evil. These beliefs existed long before European exploration and the rise of racism, and they made it easier for Europeans to consider dark-skinned people dangerous, heathens, or evil. A third reason that racism has flourished is tied to the development of the concept of race in modern times. Although racist beliefs have existed for a long time, the concept of race as a cluster of inherited characteristics associated with superiority or inferiority was new.

The Rise of Racism In South America Apartheid In America Ku Klux Klan and other and white supremacist groups The system of racial segregation in South Africa called apartheid was based on the belief that white Europeans were racially superior to the native African groups there. In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups advocate the removal or segregation of non-white persons based on notions of superiority.

African Americans in the United States 4 million slaves in the American South in 1780 Continued exploitation and segregation after the Civil War Moved from rural to urban areas and south to north in the1900s Over 200 years ago almost 4 million African slaves lived in the American South. As slaves, almost every aspect of their lives was controlled by their owners. After the Civil War ended slavery, a long period of continued exploitation and segregation of African Americans took place. In the American South, segregation was institutionalized. Although there were greater freedoms for blacks in other parts of the United States, segregation in jobs, public life, and neighborhoods existed there too. In the 1900s, many African Americans moved from the countryside to cities and from the South to the North. In 1900, more than 90 percent of African Americans lived in the South, mostly in rural areas. Today, three-quarters of the black population lives in northern urban areas.

African Americans in the United States civil rights movement- Most important. NAACP (1909) Received attention after WWII. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) segregation of public places illegal Montgomery, AL Bus Boycott (1955 to 1956) Lunch counter sit-ins (1960 and beyond) The American civil rights movement is one of the most important social movements in the history of the United States. All social movements that followed owe something to the civil rights movement. Chapter 13 covers sociological movements in more depth. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People—the NAACP—was founded in 1909, but it wasn’t until the period following World War II that it caught the attention of the American populace. The NAACP provided legal counsel for the famous 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that made segregation of public places illegal. The effort to desegregate the South, particularly its public schools, led to violent conflicts in which the federal government asserted its authority against the state and local governments that supported segregation. Public school desegregation sparked a variety of other protests. The famous Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott, which lasted a year, came on the heels of Rosa Parks being arrested. It showcased a new, young civil rights activist and preacher, Martin Luther King Jr. In the early 1960s, a variety of sit-ins took place in which young civil rights activists sat in the whites-only sections of drug store lunch counters and asked to be served. Nonviolence characterized their activism, even in the face of violent opposition by local police and supporters of segregation.

African Americans in the United States civil rights movement March on Washington (1963) Civil Rights Act (1964) Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights activists marched on Washington, D.C., to show their strength in numbers, celebrate their successes, and pressure the federal government to adopt new legislation to ensure the civil rights of all Americans. In 1964, Congress passed and President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, which bans discrimination in public facilities, education, employment, and any agency that the government funds. This far-reaching legislation has been the basis for fighting discrimination against other groups of people too, particularly women.

Latinos in the United States Different histories and national origins Different national origins and experiences characterize the Latino population in the United States. The terms Mexican American and Chicano refer to people who came to the United States from Mexico and to people who descended from territories that used to belong to Mexico before the Mexican-American War in 1848 (California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah). Other Latinos include those who came from Spanish-speaking parts of Central and South America.

Latinos in the United States Mexican Americans (32.9 million) Puerto Ricans (4.6 million) Cubans (1.8 million) several other smaller groups (9.6 million) Today there are three main groups of Latinos in the United States—Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans—and a variety of other smaller groups. As the textbook describes, Latino populations have settled in different parts of the United States. Mexican Americans still dominate California and parts of the Southwest, but they are beginning to migrate to midwestern and northern regions too. Puerto Ricans have been American citizens since 1917, when the United States acquired Puerto Rico as a commonwealth. They have settled mostly in New York City. Cubans live largely in Florida. Many of them were prosperous and educated persons who fled Cuba in 1959 after the rise of communism and Fidel Castro.

Asian Americans 18.2 million people of Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Indian, Pakistani, Korean, and Vietnamese origin Asian Americans have come to the United States in waves. As the textbook stated earlier, Chinese men came to the United States in the mid- to late-1800s to build the railroads and work in mines in the West. The Japanese settled in the West and Hawaii. Most of them, including those who were American citizens, were relocated to internment camps during World War II after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. A large number of Vietnamese refugees settled in the United States following the war in Vietnam.

Figure 11.2 shows the racial and ethnic composition of the United States from 1900 to 2050 using data from the U.S. Census Bureau. The figures for the years 2020 to 2050 are estimates. The graph reveals the growth in numbers of the Hispanic and Asian populations and the numeric decline of the white population in the United States. Earlier in Chapter 11 you learned that, beginning in 2000, the U.S. census allowed respondents to check more than one racial category to reflect the multiracial character of society, thus making it more difficult to track changes in racial and ethnic composition in the United States.

Forms of Positive Integration
Models of ethnic integration Assimilation The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture Melting pot The idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources Genocide, ethnic cleansing, and segregation are negative forms of ethnic relations. In the United States, the positive forms of ethnic relations that have been most common are assimilation and the melting pot. Assimilation is defined as the acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture. This model has operated in societies in which large numbers of immigrants have settled, such as those within the United States and Canada. The melting pot model is closely related to assimilation. In melting pot societies, ethnic differences are combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural resources. Thus, melting pot societies change regularly as new ethnic groups enter.

Research on Race and Ethnicity Today
Models of ethnic integration Pluralism A model of ethnic relations in which ethnic cultures retain their independent and separate identities yet participate in the rights and powers of citizenship Multiculturalism A recent outgrowth of pluralism in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life Two other positive models of ethnic group relations that challenge assimilation and the melting pot are pluralism and multiculturalism. Under pluralism, all ethnic groups retain their independent and separate identities, yet they share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship. In pluralistic societies, identifiable ethnic groups participate in economic and political life. Under multiculturalism, ethnic groups exist separately, as they do under pluralism, but ethnic groups do more than just participate in economic and political life; they share equally in it. The key difference has to do with the distribution of power in economic and political life among ethnic groups. Observers would call Switzerland a multicultural society because of its separate but equally powerful French, German, and Italian ethnic groups. The United States more closely resembles pluralism.

Immigration Emigration
The movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement Emigration The movement of people out of one country in order to settle in another ( From the perspective of the country of origin) Some scholars have labeled the twenty-first century the age of migration because of the large number of people migrating to different parts of the world in response to changing economic, political, and cultural life. In the United States, the changing ethnic composition present in Figure 11.2 is the result of migration patterns.. The sheer size of new ethnic groups makes it more difficult for American society to sustain assimilation or melting pot models of ethnic group relations in favor of pluralism and multiculturalism. When studying migration, it’s important to remember the difference between immigration and emigration. Immigration refers to the movement of people into a country to settle, and emigration is the process by which people leave a country to settle in another.

Classic model of migration Encourages immigration and offers citizenship but restricts annual intake United States, Canada, and Australia Colonial model of migration Encourages migration from former colonies France and United Kingdom Global migration patterns since 1945 conform to four different models—the classic, colonial, guest worker, and illegal models. Countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia conform to the classic model of migration in which immigration is encouraged and migrants are offered citizenship, but annual intake is restricted or takes the form of quotas encouraging some and discouraging other groups of immigrants. Countries like France and the United Kingdom follow a colonial model of migration in which they favor immigrants from former colonies. Large numbers of Indian and Pakistani people have settled in England and many people from Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco have settled in France.

Guest workers model Encourages temporary immigration to fulfill labor demands Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium Illegal model Immigrants enter secretly or under a non-immigration pretense Many European countries have invited foreigners to migrate to fulfill labor force demands. This guest workers model of migration is exemplified by Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and Belgium. Countries that follow this model usually do not grant citizenship rights to their guest workers, even after they have settled for long periods of time in the host country. The large Turkish community has been in Germany for generations, yet many German Turks are not German citizens. The last model is illegal migration. As industrialized countries have tightened their immigration policies and strengthened their borders, many immigrants have had to enter secretly or under some non-immigration pretense, as tourists, temporary workers, or students. In the United States, illegal immigration from Mexico is common in many border or Southern states.

Forces behind migration Push factors such as war, famine, political oppression, Pull factors The political freedom, work opportunities, and higher standard of living Macro-level factors Micro-level factors family and friendship networks Scholars of migration have identified the different forces that compel people to migrate. Push factors refer to dynamics within a country that push people out, such as war, famine, political oppression, and population pressures. Pull factors refer to the features of destination countries that attract immigrants. The political freedom, work opportunities, and higher standard of living in the United States are examples of pull factors. Another way to understand migration patterns is to examine macro- and micro-level processes. The textbook gives the example of Turks in Germany. Micro-level factors such as family and friendship networks between German Turks and Turks may be a mechanism for migration. Macro-level factors such as Germany’s demand for workers, its guest worker policies, and unfavorable job markets in Turkey compel many Turks to settle in Germany.

Emergent migration patterns Acceleration—greater numbers Diversification—greater variety of types of immigrants Globalization—more countries are sending and receiving migrants Feminization—greater number of female immigrants According to Stephen Castles and Mark Miller (1993), newly emerging migration patterns will be characterized by acceleration, diversification, globalization, and feminization. Acceleration means that there will be increasingly larger numbers of people migrating across borders. There will be a greater variety of immigrant groups, which is diversification. Migration will go global, meaning that more and more countries will be involved in sending and receiving people. Finally, whereas previous migrant populations were masculine, a greater number of women will be involved in migration than ever before. Women leave their countries to work in the labor market, as domestic or child care workers, in the sex trade, and as “mail order brides.”

Diaspora The dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas, often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances (Jews, Africans, Armenians) but sometimes voluntarily (Chinese, Indian, Caribbean, British) Some migratory movements are called a diaspora, which is the dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas, often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances. Diaspora characterizes what has happened to particular groups of people often thought of as victims, such as Africans forced into slavery or Jews forced from their homes out of terror. Other groups of people have left for labor, trade, or cultural purposes. What diasporas have in common are: people leave their homeland out of force or voluntarily; they share a common memory about and belief in returning to their homeland; their ethnic identity is sustained over time and distance; they feel a strong sense of solidarity with other ethnic group members, even those settling elsewhere as part of the diaspora; they experience tension where they settle; and they have the potential to make valuable contributions to their host societies.

since 1973 Global Map 11.2 displays the global migratory movements that have taken place since Notice that very few arrows are coming out of North America, Australia, and Europe. These are the regions that are receiving immigrants. There are several arrows coming out of South America, North Africa, the Middle East, and various parts of Asia. These are the regions that are sending immigrants.

Do New Immigrants Help or Hinder the Nation’s Economy?
Recent immigration 2002–2006: yearly average of 1,021,884 legal immigrants and another 500,000 illegal immigrants entered the country The cultural and social landscape of the United States is viewed as an amalgam of diverse cultures, largely because of our nation’s history as a refuge for immigrants. Today, however, policy makers and social scientists disagree over the social and economic costs of immigration. Before discussing this debate, it is important to understand the current state of immigration to the United States. There are more than 39 million foreign-born individuals in the United States, roughly 13 percent of the total population; a number not seen since the 1920s. In the decade of the 1990s, more than 977,000 legal immigrants arrived each year, and an additional 300,000 entered and stayed in the country illegally. From 2002 to 2006, an average of 1,021,884 legal immigrants was admitted each year, and another 500,000 illegal immigrants entered the country. In contrast to the major wave of immigration of the 1880s and 1890s, fewer than 10 percent of immigrants admitted into the United States in the 1980s and 1990s were of European origin. In fact, between 1989 and 1993, more than half came from Mexico, the Philippines, Vietnam, and El Salvador. The United States has altered its immigration policy multiple times to encourage or discourage certain groups of people from coming to the United States. The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments abolished preference for northern and western European immigrants and gave preference to “family reunification” rather than occupational skills as a reason for accepting immigrants. As a way to deal with its illegal immigrants, in 1986 the United States adopted the Immigration Reform and Control Act, which gave amnesty for many illegal immigrants.

Unanswered Questions Do New Immigrants Help or Hinder the Nation’s Economy? Employment Taxes Education Without them the gross domestic product of the United States would be $1 trillion less. The National Immigration Forum has estimated that immigrant workers contribute significantly to the national economy. Even though most immigrants work in low-wage and hard-labor jobs, without them the gross domestic product of the United States would be $1 trillion less. Assessing the fiscal costs of immigration proves difficult, however. Although much of the public debate focuses on the costs of providing services to illegal immigrants, actual statistics documenting the number of illegal immigrants are difficult to obtain and verify. Moreover, few policy analysts can predict whether U.S. immigration policy—or the characteristics of immigrants themselves—will change drastically in the future. Other research is discussed in the textbook.

Unanswered Questions Has Real Progress Been Made since the Civil Rights Movements of the 1960s? Educational attainment Employment and income Health Residential segregation Political power On the one hand, an increasing number of blacks joined the middle class by acquiring college degrees, professional jobs, and new homes. On the other hand, blacks are far more like than whites to live in poverty and be socially isolated from good schools and economic opportunity. Also, many immigrants came to the United States throughout the 1980s and 1990s to find new economic opportunity. Yet some of these groups, particularly Mexicans, have among the lowest levels of educational achievement and live in dire poverty. Most sociologists agree on the facts about racial and ethnic inequality but disagree on how to interpret them. Are the improving economic conditions for minority groups part of a long-term process, or were they temporary reflections of the booming 1990s economy? Is racial and ethnic inequality primarily the result of a person’s racial or ethnic background, or does it reflect a person’s class position? Let’s examine how racial and ethnic inequality is reflected in educational and occupational attainment, income, health, residential segregation, and political power.

Unanswered Questions Figure 11.3A shows that high school graduation rates between non-Hispanic whites, African Americans, and Asians are relatively close. Hispanics, however, graduate from high school at a much lower rate. The picture for college graduation rates is quite different than it is for high school graduation rates. Figure 11.3B shows that close to half of all Asian Americans and 34 percent of non-Hispanic whites graduate from college. College graduation rates for blacks and Hispanics are much lower—about 20 percent and 14 percent, respectively.

Unanswered Questions Inequalities also exist in employment and income. Using data from the U.S. Census Bureau, Figure 11.4 shows trends in median household income from 1980 to 2011 based on race. The incomes of Asians and Pacific Islanders are the highest, although they have begun to fall in recent years as a result of the economic recession. The incomes of non-Hispanic whites are second highest and also show a slight decrease recently. Far below the incomes of these two groups are figures for Hispanics and blacks, which have been very close until recently. Beginning in 2004, the gap between the incomes of Hispanics and blacks began to widen.

Unanswered Questions How Can Ethnic Conflict Be Reduced? Genocide
Ethnic cleansing Political power Ethnic conflict can take on many different forms. One form of group relations is genocide. In this most extreme and devastating type of group relations, racial, political, or cultural groups are systematically destroyed. The extermination of 6 million Jews by Nazi Germany during World War II, the genocide of over 1 million Armenians by Turkey between 1915 and 1923, and the murder of 2 million Cambodians by the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s are three recent examples. Today in the Darfur region of Sudan, hundreds of thousands of people are being murdered because of their ethnic or tribal heritage. Ethnic cleansing refers to the creation of ethnically homogeneous territories through the mass expulsion of other ethnic populations. Using targeted violence, harassment, threats, and campaigns of terror, Croatia expelled thousands of Serbs. The textbook gives other examples of genocide and ethnic cleansing. Many commentators have argued that the best way to reduce ethnic conflicts is to establish democracy and a free market; this would promote peace by giving everyone a say in running the country and by giving all people access to the prosperity that comes from trade. As the textbook mentions, others find that although democracy and the market economy are in principle beneficent forces, they must be grounded in an effective system of law and civil society. Where they are not, new and acute ethnic conflicts can emerge.

Genocide The extermination of 6 million Jews by Nazi Germany during World War II over 1 million Armenians by Turkey between 1915 and 1923, murder of 2 million Cambodians by the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s are three recent examples. Today in the Darfur region of Sudan, hundreds of thousands of people are being murdered because of their ethnic or tribal heritage Croatia expelled thousands of Serbs.

Concept Quiz Cultural practices and outlooks of a given community that have emerged historically and that set people apart are referred to as ______. (a) race (b) ethnicity (c) cultural relativism (d) pluralism Answer: (b). Feedback: Ethnicity refers to a group membership based on shared cultural traditions, language, and history, and is distinct from racial categories.

Concept Quiz Newspaper cartoons in the 1800s that compared the head of an African man and an Irish man to that of an ape and implied or said outright that Africans and the Irish were lazy, dangerous, and not quite human are examples of ______. (a) prejudice (b) scapegoating (c) racialization (d) displacement Answer: (c). Feedback: Racialization is the process of using understandings of race to classify individuals or groups. Ads and cartoons that featured Africans or Irish people as closer to monkeys than to Anglo whites, for example, constructed those groups as biologically separate and inferior.

Concept Quiz Which of the following pairs are closest to being opposites? (a) melting pot; pluralism (b) assimilation; emigration (c) multiculturalism; pluralism (d) prejudice; discrimination Answer: (a). Feedback: The idea of the melting pot was a theory of ethnic integration that imagined the United States as a place where multiple cultures would come together and be combined into a unified, new American culture. Pluralism is a different model of immigration according to which myriad cultures come and coexist without influencing one another, despite shared participation in economic and political life.

Concept Quiz The system of state-controlled racial segregation in South Africa was called ______. (a) institutional racism (b) apartheid (c) Jim Crow (d) colonial rule Answer: (b). Feedback: While racial segregation today is often caused by economic and/or informal social pressures, there have been many instances of state-mandated segregation in world history, including the Jim Crow laws in the United States and apartheid in South Africa, which only formally ended in 1994.

Concept Quiz According to the text, affirmative action programs are an example of ______. (a) antiracism (b) racism (c) scapegoating (d) discrimination Answer: (a). Feedback: Antiracism is a concept that arose in the 1960s and is constituted by forms of thought and/or practice that seek to confront, eradicate, and/or ameliorate racism. Affirmative action programs are considered antiracist because they seek to remedy the effects of long periods of racism that have resulted in low numbers of minorities in higher education, professions, and other high-level jobs.

Concept Quiz What happened in 1954 to set the civil rights movement in motion? (a) The Black Panther Party was formed. (b) Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. (c) The Supreme Court decided in Brown v. Board of Education that “separate” was inherently unequal. (d) The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was formed. Answer: (c). Feedback: Brown v. Board of Education was the final culmination of efforts on the part of the NAACP to challenge segregated public education. The enormous amount of resistance to desegregation on the part of whites gave fuel to the nascent movement, which gained additional momentum through the Montgomery bus boycott started by Rosa Parks. Local strategies like this multiplied throughout the country, particularly in the South, leading to a national movement that culminated in the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Discussion Question: Thinking Sociologically
Compare the assimilation experiences of Asians and Latinos. What are the criteria for assimilation? Which group has assimilated most readily? Explain the sociological reasons for the difference in assimilation between the two groups.

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