1. Qualitative Research Paper 3

2. Qualitative Research: Theory & Practice

3. The debate in relation to epistemology Epistemology: The study of knowledge and justified belief ▫How can we know about the world? Ontology: Looking at if social reality exist independently of human perceptions and interpretations Ritchie & Lewis (2003) created 3 questions in the debate in relation to epistemology ▫Helps understand the difference between research in the natural sciences (biology, anatomy, etc.) and the social sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.) ▫Social Sciences uses quantitative (e.g. surveys) as well as qualitative methods and they should not be viewed as competing but complementary to research questions

4. Three Questions 1.What is the relationship between the researcher and the researched? Researched should not be impacted by the researcher Not objective and value-free…assumptions can influence analysis Researcher should use reflexivity 2.What can be held as truth? Natural Sciences  correspondence theory of truth Social Sciences  coherenece theory of truth 3.How is knowledge gathered? Natural Sciences  Deductive process (cause-and-effect relationships, generalization, and prediction) Social Sciences  Inductive process (collected evidence reaches a conclusion)

5. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research QualitativeQuantitative Text data (transcripts or field notes) Open-ended and flexible (open for interpretation) “Rich data” (plenty of details about people, places, conversations, etc.) Not easy to analyze Can use a theory or create a theory Numerical data Uses statistical tests Meant to be used for generalization beyond the sample which was used

6. Strengths & Weaknesses of Qualitative Research StrengthsWeaknesses Provides rich data Investigate complex issues Explain a phenomena Identify and evaluate factors that help solve problems Generate new ideas for theories Own environment  validity Time consuming No clear strategy for analysis Interpretation of data may be subjective ▫Reflexivity can help reduce this

7. Generalization Results are relevant to situations outside the original study Representational: ▫Applied to populations outside the population of the study Inferential: ▫Applied to settings outside the setting of the study ▫Transferability or external validity Theoretical: ▫Theoretical concepts derived from study can be used to further develop theory

8. Ethical Considerations Informed consent Protection of participants Anonymity & confidentiality *We’ve already covered this info, revisit it!

9. Sampling Techniques ProbabilityNon-probability Related to statistical probability and representativeness Random selection Does not use random selection

10. Sampling Techniques Purposive Sampling Snowball Sampling Convenience Sampling

11. Qualititative Research: Interviews

12. Qualitative Research: Interviews Semi-structured interviews Focus groups Narrative interviews

13. Considerations before the interview Consider relevant sampling methods (purposive) Training the interviewer to reduce interviewer effects ▫ effects caused by the presence of an interviewer Reading non-verbal signs Choice of interviewer ▫gender, age, ethnicity Create an interview guide ▫script based on previous literature Ethical considerations Flexibility and open-ended questions Practice questions, difficult words (equipment too)

14. Type of Questions Descriptive ▫“What happened?” “What does it feel like to…” Structural ▫“What does it mean to your life to suffer from cancer?” Contrast ▫“Did you prefer being in that school or the other one?” Evaluative ▫Did you feel afraid when you went through chemo?”

15. Considerations during the interview Data recording ▫notes, recorder, video taping ▫Permission for recordings Eye-contact Prepare notes/questions in front of interviewee Establish rapport (trust) Active listening technique: repeating thoughts/answers back to interviewee

16. Considerations after the interview Transcription of the data ▫Changing it into a written and useful text in preparation for analysis Verbatim vs. postmodern transcripts ▫Word for word or included all pauses, false starts, laughter/sobs Informed consent and briefing must take place ▫Allow them to read over notes/listen to recording

17. Data Analysis: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Used to identify key themes, concepts, & categories Includes Grounded Theory: Used to study social processes in sociology which involves coding (finding specific categories in the data material) Identifies & integrates categories of meaning from the data Aim: Generating a new theory based on the data

18. Coding Process Higher-level categories emerge while the lower-level categories are integrated into meaningful units Low-level categories emerge; coding process continues Descriptive labels are given to discrete instances of phenomena

19. Thoughts According to Willig (2001) Grounded Theory enables the researcher to study social processes but IPA allows the researcher to gain an insider’s view of how individual participants make sense of the world IPA uses hierarchal organization just like grounded theory Goal of IPA: gain insight into how an individual perceives & explains a phenomenon ▫Uses semi-structured interviews, focus groups, diaries, or narrative interviews ▫Data collection is not based on prior assumptions or existing theories

20. Analysis Based on Interpretation Analysis is based on interpretation of participant’s experience which is derived from paying attention to the presented phenomenon rather than including one from the outside Diversity is key; looks for divergence and convergence in the themes Looks at the interpretation of texts to gain insight of the lived experience of the participants but this does not reflect the actual lived experience

21. Process for Rich-thick Descriptions Systematic search for themes First reading Connect themes in meaningful ways to establish more themes Subsequent readings Researcher will use elicited themes to draw conclusions Research report Supported by verbatim extracts

22. Analytic Strategy in IPA 1.Reading and rereading the transcripts 2.Identification of emergent themes 3.Structuring emergent themes 4.Summary table of the structured themes and relevant quotations that illustrate each theme 5.Data saturation: analyzing data until no new information can be extracted

23. Qualitative Research Observations

24. Qualitative Research: Observations Aim: To gather first-hand information in a naturally occurring situation Purpose: To understand what it means to be a member of that particular group/look at behaviors Provide accounts of the observation on different levels of interaction in hopes to identify and explain social structures within the group Usually combined with other methods ▫interviews

25. Basic Methods of Observation Participant Observations ▫Taking part in the situation while during research Non-participant Observations ▫Not part of the situation Naturalistic Observation ▫Takes place in the natural environment of the group/person being studied Overt Observation ▫Participants know they are being observed Covert Observation ▫Participants DO NOT know they are being observed

26. Analysis of Data for Observations Inductive approach: Beginning to create a picture as they collect the data and examine the participants Based off of field notes and then compared to data from other sources (pictures, interviews, journals, etc.) Uses grounded theory to analyze the “thick” field notes ▫Description ▫Coding and connecting themes ▫Produce an account

27. Description Create a complete description of the phenomenon of interest which includes ▫the context of the action  What is happening? What are they doing? How are others reacting? ▫ intentions of the participant  Why are they behaving that way? ▫the process in which the action is embedded  Cause and effect? Thick description  rich data

28. Coding and Connecting Themes Organizing information into categories Purpose: To provide tools for analysis ▫It would not be possible to know what is analyzed thus not allowing comparison of data Classification Process: Reading and then rereading field notes in an interactive way: ▫Asks questions: Who? What? Where? Why? Create graphs/charts of categories and their connections and supply examples ▫Allows data to be clear and shows related themes Memos: Notes about notes (shows readers how and why connections were reached)

29. After Classification Themes created  Higher-order themes (main themes)  subthemes Interpretation of data is based off of comparison of the collected data as well as evidence from other sources Thinking Critically is crucial ▫Looking for data that supports & contradicts ▫Looking for alternative explanations

30. Producing an Account Written account based on all the elements of the analysis Coherent explanation and an overall theoretical framework for understanding the phenomenon ▫Theoretical framework must be grounded (based on the categories identified during the observation)  Theoretical Triangulation made be used (alternative theories to explain the phenomenon) Researcher should consult the data (and perhaps the participants) to see if the theories support the interpretation Final step: ask other researchers to take a critical look at the analysis to see if there is support

31. Final Considerations Researcher should make is possible for the reader to track and verify how the conclusion was reached Generalization is possible ▫Inferential ▫Theoretical

32. Qualitative Research: Case Studies

33. Qualitative Research: Case Studies An in-depth investigation of human experience ▫One person, family, social group, an event, organization ▫Single case or multiple case (series of cases are compared) Usually takes place in participants’ natural environment

34. Types of Case Studies Intrinsic Instrumental Represent nothing but themselves Very unique and not common situations Researcher wants to gain insight into one particular phenomenon ▫Person who was kept as a prisoner in a basement for many years Represents a more general/common phenomenon In theory, anyone that has experienced the situation under investigation will react in similar ways ▫Homeless ▫Losing a child ▫Suffering from cancer

35. Types of Case Studies Descriptive Explanatory Generate a detailed description of a phenomenon Generate new knowledge Are not always analyzed in terms of an existing theory Describe and find possible explanations for the phenomenon under investigation Theoretical analysis is based on an existing theory or a new theory is generated

36. Thoughts According to Willig (2001) A case study should always be seen in context and the specifications about the context should be addressed ▫Psychological, sociocultural, historical, & biological dimensions are important ▫Example: A case study on resilience in street children  Early development, familial relations, personality, social support

37. Steps for A Case Study Choose participants using a sampling method Choose a method ▫Usually a semi-structured interview ▫Triangulation ▫*Conclusions are based on multiple sources  Personal notes (letters, journals, photographs)  Focus groups  Observations  Questionnaires  Clinical notes *Case studies are not considered a method but rather a RESEARCH STRATEGY

38. Strengths of a Case Study 1.Opportunity to investigate phenomenon that could not be studied otherwise 2.Permits insight into social processes in a group 3.Stimulates new research 4.Contradicts established theory and helps develop new theories

39. Limitations of a Case Study 1.Difficult to define a case study 2.Subject to researcher bias 3.Memory distortions and effects of social desirability

40. Ethical Considerations Few participants which can jeopardize anonymity Active participation of participants via interviews or writing about experiences that may cause distress/anxiety ▫Time consuming self-reflection can lead to dealing with painful memories emotions