1. Discrete Structures & Algorithms More on Methods of Proof / Mathematical Induction EECE 320 — UBC

2. 2 What have we explored so far Propositional logic Rules of inference Methods of proof

3. 3 Problem: On an island live Greeks and Romans. Greeks always lie. Romans always tell the truth. You encounter two people: A and B. A says: “B is a Roman” and B says: “We are not the same people”. What are A and B?

4. 4 Proof Methods For proving implications p  q, we have: Direct proof: Assume p is true, and prove q. Indirect proof: Assume  q, and prove  p. Vacuous proof: Prove  p by itself. Trivial proof: Prove q by itself. Proof by cases: Show p  (a  b), and (a  q) and (b  q). Proof by contradiction of any statements. Existence proofs: Constructive and nonconstructive

5. 5 A Direct Proof Prove that an integer n is even, if n 2 is even.

6. 6 A … Proof Prove that if n = a*b are positive integers then a  sqrt(n) or b  sqrt(n)

7. 7 A … Proof Prove that the equation r 3 + r + 1 = 0 has no rational solution.

8. 8 An existence proof (constructive or non-constrictive?) Prove that there exist a and b irrational numbers such that a b is rational.

9. 9 A few techniques Forward / backward reasoning Adapting existing proofs Intermediary steps / Conjectures / Counter examples

10. 10 Proving by induction

11. 11 Dominoes Domino Principle: Line up any number of dominos in a row; knock the first one over and they will all fall.

12. 12 Dominoes numbered 1 to n F k = “The k th domino falls” If we set them up in a row then each one is set up to knock over the next: For all 1 ≤ k < n: F k  F k+1 F 1  F 2  F 3  … F 1  All Dominoes Fall

13. 13 Dominoes numbered 1 to n F k = “The k th domino falls”  k, 0 ≤ k < n: F k  F k+1 F 0  F 1  F 2  … F 0  All Dominoes Fall

14. 14 The natural numbers One domino for each natural number: 0123… = { 0, 1, 2, 3,... } 

15. 15 Plato’s Dominoes One for each natural number Theorem: An infinite row of dominoes, one domino for each natural number. Knock over the first domino and they all will fall Suppose they don’t all fall. Let k > 0 be the lowest numbered domino that remains standing. Domino k-1 ≥ 0 did fall, but k-1 will knock over domino k. Thus, domino k must fall and remain standing. Contradiction. Proof:

16. 16 Mathematical Induction statements proved instead of dominoes fallen Infinite sequence of dominoes Infinite sequence of statements: S 0, S 1, … F k = “domino k fell”F k = “S k proved” Conclude that F k is true for all k Establish:1. F 0 2. For all k ≥0, F k  F k+1

17. 17 Inductive proofs To prove  k  , S k Establish “Base Case”: S 0 Establish that  k, S k  S k+1  k, S k  S k+1 Assume hypothetically that S k for any particular k fixed; Prove that S k+1

18. 18 Theorem? The sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2 Check on small values: 1= 1 1+3 = 4 1+3+5= 9 1+3+5+7= 16

19. 19 Theorem? The sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2 The k th odd number is (2k – 1), when k > 0 S k is the statement that: “1+3+5+…+(2k-1) = k 2 ”

20. 20 S k = “1 + 3 + 5 + …. + (2k-1) = k 2 ” Establishing that  n ≥ 1 S n Base Case: S 1 Assume “Induction Hypothesis”: S k That means: 1+3+5+…+ (2k-1) = k 2 1+3+5+…+ (2k-1)+(2k+1) = k 2 +(2k+1) Sum of first k+1 odd numbers = (k+1) 2 Domino Property:

21. 21 Theorem The sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2

22. 22 Primes: Note: 1 is not considered prime A natural number n > 1 is a prime if it has no divisors besides 1 and itself

23. 23 Theorem ? Every natural number > 1 can be factored into primes S n = “n can be factored into primes” Base case: 2 is prime  S 2 is true S k-1 = “k-1 can be factored into primes” How do we use the fact: S k = “k can be factored into primes” to prove that:

24. 24 This shows a technical point about mathe- matical induction

25. 25 Theorem ? Every natural number > 1 can be factored into primes A different approach: Assume 2,3,…,k-1 all can be factored into primes Then show that k can be factored into primes

26. 26 “All previous” induction To prove  k, S k Establish Base Case: S 0 Establish Domino Effect: Assume  j<k, S j use that to derive S k

27. 27 All Previous Induction To Prove  k, S k Establish Base Case: S 0 Establish Domino Effect: Assume  j<k, S j use that to derive S k Also called “Strong Induction”

28. 28 Let k be any number “All previous” induction Repackaged As Standard Induction Establish Base Case: S 0 Establish Domino Effect: Let k be any number Assume  j<k, S j Prove S k Define T i =  j ≤ i, S j Establish Base Case T 0 Establish that  k, T k  T k+1 Assume T k-1 Prove T k

29. 29 And there are more ways to do inductive proofs

30. 30 Invariant (n): 1. Not varying; constant. 2. Mathematics. Unaffected by a designated operation, as a transformation of coordinates. Another way of packaging inductive reasoning is to define “invariants”

31. 31 Invariant (n): 3. Programming. A rule, such as the ordering of an ordered list, that applies throughout the life of a data structure or procedure. Each change to the data structure maintains the correctness of the invariant

32. 32 Invariant Induction Suppose we have a time varying world state: W 0, W 1, W 2, … Argue that S is true of the initial world Show that if S is true of some world – then S remains true after any permissible operation is performed Each state change is assumed to come from a list of permissible operations. We seek to prove that statement S is true of all future worlds

33. 33 Odd/Even Handshaking Theorem At any party at any point in time define a person’s parity as ODD/EVEN according to the number of hands they have shaken Statement: The number of people of odd parity must be even

34. 34 If 2 people of the same parity shake, they both change and hence the odd parity count changes by 2 – and remains even Statement: The number of people of odd parity must be even Initial case: Zero hands have been shaken at the start of a party, so zero people have odd parity Invariant Argument: If 2 people of different parities shake, then they both swap parities and the odd parity count is unchanged

35. 35 Exercise Show that the sum of first N positive integers is N*(N+1)/2

36. 36 Inductive reasoning is the high level idea “Standard” Induction “All Previous” Induction “Invariants” all just different packaging

37. 37 Induction is also how we can define and construct our world. So many things, from buildings to computers, are built up stage by stage, module by module, each depending on the previous stages.

38. 38 The essential elements of mathematical induction are: The proposition of interest The base case The inductive step