1. ©Prentice Hall 20038-1 Understanding Psychology 6 th Edition Charles G. Morris and Albert A. Maisto PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College

2. ©Prentice Hall 20038-2 Motivation Motive: –A specific need, desire, or want, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-oriented behavior.

3. ©Prentice Hall 20038-3 Perspectives On Motivation Instinct: –Inborn, inflexible, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species. Drive: –A state of tension or arousal brought on by biological needs. Drive-reduction theory: –Motivated behavior is aimed at reducing a drive.

4. ©Prentice Hall 20038-4 Perspectives On Motivation Primary drive: –A physiologically based unlearned motive, such as hunger. Homeostasis: –A state of balance and stability in which the organism functions effectively. Incentive: –An external stimulus that prompts goal-directed behavior.

5. ©Prentice Hall 20038-5 Perspectives On Motivation Arousal theory –Some psychologists suggest that motivation might have to do with arousal. –Arousal theory suggests that each of us has a optimum level of arousal that varies from one situation to another –Behavior may be motivated by the desire to maintain the optimum level

6. ©Prentice Hall 20038-6 Two Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation: –A desire to perform a behavior that originates within the individual. Extrinsic motivation: –A desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment.

7. ©Prentice Hall 20038-7 The Yerkes-Dodson Law States there is an optimal level of arousal for the best performance of any task. The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated before performance deteriorates.

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9. ©Prentice Hall 20038-9 A Hierarchy of Motives Abraham Maslow suggested that human motives can be arranged in a hierarchy. Maslow believed higher motives don't emerge until the more basic ones have been met. Recent research challenges his view. In some societies, difficulty in meeting basic needs can actually foster the satisfaction of higher motives.

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11. ©Prentice Hall 20038-11 Hunger and Thirst

12. ©Prentice Hall 20038-12 Biological and Emotional Factors Hunger is regulated by several centers within the brain. These centers are stimulated by receptors monitoring stomach contents, as well as by receptors monitoring the contents of the blood, especially its levels of glucose, fats, and carbohydrates.

13. ©Prentice Hall 20038-13 Control of Hunger The hypothalamus contains –Hunger center: stimulates eating –Satiety center: stops eating A fall in the glucose level stimulates neurons in the hunger center and inhibits neurons in the satiety center.

14. ©Prentice Hall 20038-14 Other Factors Contributing to Eating Behavior Hunger is stimulated by factors outside the body, such as cooking aromas, and by emotional, cultural, and social factors. Eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa and bulimia, are more prevalent among females than among males. They are characterized by extreme preoccupation with body image and weight.

15. ©Prentice Hall 20038-15 Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa: –A serious eating disorder that is associated with an intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image. Bulimia: –An eating disorder characterized by binges of eating followed by self-induced purging.

16. ©Prentice Hall 20038-16 Characteristics of Anorexics The majority are female. Approximately 90% are white upper or middle-class females. They are usually successful students and cooperative, well-behaved children. They have an intense interest in food but view eating with disgust.

17. ©Prentice Hall 20038-17 Four Symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa Intense, unvarying fear of becoming obese. Disturbance of body image. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimal normal weight. The absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles.

18. ©Prentice Hall 20038-18 Characteristics of Bulimics The majority are upper or middle-class females. Bulimics typically have a lowered self-esteem and have experienced some form of clinical depression prior to the development of bulimia.

19. ©Prentice Hall 20038-19 Criteria for a Diagnosis of Bulimia Recurrent episodes of binge eating. Recurrent inappropriate behaviors to try to prevent weight gain (e.g., self-induced vomiting). The binging and purging must occur at least twice a week for three months.

20. ©Prentice Hall 20038-20 Criteria for a Diagnosis of Bulimia Body shape and weight excessively influence one’s self-image.

21. ©Prentice Hall 20038-21 Sex

22. ©Prentice Hall 20038-22 Biological Factors Although hormones are involved in human sexual responses, they don't play as dominant a role as they do in some other species. In humans, the brain exerts a powerful influence on the sex drive as well.

23. ©Prentice Hall 20038-23 Biological Factors Hormones play an important role in the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Pheromones may influence sexual attraction in humans.

24. ©Prentice Hall 20038-24 The Sexual Response Cycle Excitement: –penile erection (males) and swelling of breasts and clitoris (females) Plateau: –sexual tension levels off Orgasm: –male ejaculation and female uterine contractions; A loss of muscle control for both sexes Resolution: –relaxation and a decrease in muscle tension

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26. ©Prentice Hall 20038-26 Cultural and Environmental Factors Gender differences: –men are more aroused by visual stimuli, –women are more aroused by touch Different cultures have varying beliefs on what is considered attractive.

27. ©Prentice Hall 20038-27 Sexual Orientation Arguments concerning the origins of sexual orientation parallel the nature vs. nurture debate. The nature side argues there is a biological difference between homosexuality and heterosexuality. The nurture side suggests sexual orientation is a learned behavior.

28. ©Prentice Hall 20038-28 Other Important Motives

29. ©Prentice Hall 20038-29 Stimulus Motives Definition: –unlearned motives that prompt us to explore or change the world around us. Exploration and curiosity Manipulation and contact

30. ©Prentice Hall 20038-30 Exploration and Curiosity Exploration and curiosity are two human motivations that encourage us to explore our environment and often to change it.

31. ©Prentice Hall 20038-31 Manipulation and Contact Another important stimulus motive in humans and other primates is to seek various forms of tactile stimulation. This contact motive can be seen in the child's urge to cling and cuddle.

32. ©Prentice Hall 20038-32 Learned Motives Aggression Achievement Power Affiliation

33. Aggression Aggression is behavior aimed at doing harm to others; also the motive to behave aggressively. Aggression may be triggered by pain or frustration. Aggression may be learned through modeling. © Prentice Hall, 1999

34. ©Prentice Hall 20038-34 Aggression and Culture Collectivist societies: –Emphasize the good of the group over the desires of the individual. Individualist societies: –Emphasizes the good of the individual over the desires of the group.

35. ©Prentice Hall 20038-35 Gender and Aggression Males are more likely than females to behave aggressively, commit murder, favor capital punishment, use force to achieve their goals, and prefer aggressive sports. Both biological and social factors contribute to gender differences in aggression.

36. ©Prentice Hall 20038-36 Achievement People who display a desire to excel, to overcome obstacles, and to accomplish difficult things score high in what psychologists call achievement motive. Although hard work and a strong desire to master challenges contribute to achievement, competitiveness toward others often does not.

37. ©Prentice Hall 20038-37 Achievement In fact, competitiveness can actually interfere with achievement perhaps by alienating other people, or by becoming a preoccupation that distracts from the attainment of goals.

38. ©Prentice Hall 20038-38 Affiliation The need to be with others Affiliation behavior stems from a subtle interplay of internal and external factors. It is especially pronounced when we feel threatened or anxious. Affiliation with others in this situation can counteract fear and bolster spirits.

39. ©Prentice Hall 20038-39 Emotions

40. ©Prentice Hall 20038-40 Basic Emotions Robert Plutchik's classification system for emotions uses a circle to position eight basic emotional categories.

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42. ©Prentice Hall 20038-42 Plutchik’s 8 Basic Categories of Emotion Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance

43. ©Prentice Hall 20038-43 Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard theory Cognitive theory

44. ©Prentice Hall 20038-44 James-Lange Theory According to the James-Lange theory, certain stimuli in the environment can bring on physiological changes in the body. Emotions arise from our awareness of those changes.

45. ©Prentice Hall 20038-45 Cannon-Bard Theory The Cannon-Bard theory holds that emotions and bodily responses occur simultaneously, not one after the other.

46. ©Prentice Hall 20038-46 Cognitive Theory A third perspective, the cognitive theory of emotion, contends that our perceptions and judgments of situations are essential to our emotional experiences. Without these cognitions we would have no idea how to label our feelings.

47. ©Prentice Hall 20038-47 Challenges to the Cognitive Theory Carroll Izard argues that it may not be cognitive assessments that give rise to emotions. Perhaps certain inborn facial expressions and body postures are automatically triggered in emotion-arousing situations and then "read" by the brain as particular feelings.

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49. ©Prentice Hall 20038-49 Communicating Emotions

50. ©Prentice Hall 20038-50 Voice Quality and Facial Expression People sometimes express their emotions verbally through their words, tone of voice, exclamations, and other sounds. Facial expressions are the most obvious nonverbal indicators of emotion.

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52. ©Prentice Hall 20038-52 Body Language, Personal Space and Gestures Other indicators involve body language, our posture, the way we move, our preferred personal distance from others when talking to them, and our degree of eye contact. Explicit acts, such as slamming a door, also may express emotions People vary in their skill at reading these nonverbal cues.

53. ©Prentice Hall 20038-53 Gender and Emotion Research confirms some gender differences in expressing and perceiving emotions. For instance, when confronted with a person in distress, women are more likely than men to express emotion, even though the levels of physiological arousal are the same for the two sexes.

54. ©Prentice Hall 20038-54 Gender and Emotion In some stressful situations, men tend to report more anger, and women more disappointment and hurt. Women are generally better than men at reading other people's emotions. This skill may be sharpened in women by their role as caretakers of infants and their traditional subordinate status to men.

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56. ©Prentice Hall 20038-56 Culture and Emotion Universalist position: –the face looks the same across culture when certain emotions are expressed. Culture-learning position: –the facial expressions of emotion are learned within a given culture.

57. ©Prentice Hall 20038-57 Culture and Emotion The facial expressions associated with certain basic emotions appear to be universal. The expressions are the same regardless of a person's cultural background.

58. ©Prentice Hall 20038-58 Culture and Emotion This cross-cultural finding contradicts the culture-learning view, which suggests that facial expressions of emotion are learned within a particular culture. This is not to say that there are no cultural differences in emotional expression.

59. ©Prentice Hall 20038-59 Culture and Emotion Overlaying the universal expression of certain emotions are culturally-varying display rules that govern when it is appropriate to show emotion-to whom, by whom, and under what circumstances.

60. ©Prentice Hall 20038-60 Display Rules Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why facial expression of emotion are displayed. Examples of display rules: –Intensification, deintensification, masking, and neutralization