1. A little intro to each of the different Macromolecules

2. Biological Molecules
The framework of biological molecules consists of carbon bonded to other carbon molecules, or other types of atoms.
Hydrocarbons consist of carbon and hydrogen.
Covalent bonds store considerable energy.
Make good fuels

3. Biological Molecules
Functional groups
specific groups of atoms attached to carbon backbones
retain definite chemical properties
Macromolecules.
proteins
nucleic acids
lipids
carbohydrates

4. Functional Group Structural Formula Example H H Hydroxyl Carbonyl
Carboxyl
Amino
Sulfhydryl
Phosphate
Methyl OH H C C OH H H
Ethanol C H O O H C C H H
Acetaldehyde O H O C H C C OH H OH
Acetic acid H O H H N HO C C N H H
CH3
Alanine H H S H HO C C S H H H
b-mercaptoethanol O– OH OH H O O P O– H C C C O P O– O H H H O–
Glycerol phosphate H O O H C H O– C C C H H H
Pyruvate

5. Macromolecules
Macromolecules are often polymers.
long molecule built by linking together small, similar subunits
Dehydration synthesis removes OH and H during synthesis of a new molecule.
Hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by adding OH and H.

6. MACROMOLECULES

7. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are loosely defined as molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.
monosaccharides - simple sugars

8. disaccharides - two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
H2O

9. polysaccharides - macromolecules made of monosaccharide subunits
isomers - alternative forms of the same substance – Many C6H1206

10. Carbohydrate Transport and Storage
Transport disaccharides
Humans transport glucose as a simple monosaccharide.
Plants transform glucose into a disaccharide transport form.
Storage polysaccharides
plant polysaccharides formed from glucose – starches
most is amylopectin
Animal starch is glycogen

11. Structural Carbohydrates
Cellulose - plants
alpha form or beta form of ring
Chitin - arthropods and fungi
modified form of cellulose

12. Lipids
Lipids are loosely defined as groups of molecules that are insoluble in water.
fats and oils
Phospholipids form the core of all biological membranes.
composed of three subunits
Glycerol - backbone
fatty acid – long tail
phosphate group – head
Polar head - hydrophilic
Nonpolar tail - hydrophobic

13. Phospholipids form membranes

14. Fats and Other Lipids
Fats consist a of glycerol molecule with three attached fatty acids (triglyceride / triglycerol).
Saturated fats - all internal carbon atoms are bonded to at least two hydrogen atoms – maximum # of H
Unsaturated fats - at least one double bond between successive carbon atoms
Polyunsaturated - contains more than one double bond
usually liquid at room temperature
Double bonds in the tail

15. Fats as Energy Storage Molecules
Fats, on average, yield about 9 kcal per gram versus 4 kcal per gram for carbohydrates.
Animal fats are saturated while most plant fats are unsaturated.
Consumption of excess carbohydrates leads to conversion into starch, glycogen, or fats for future use.

16. R A. Amino acids B. Peptide bonds C. Polypeptide chains H O
Proteins
A. Amino acids
B. Peptide bonds
C. Polypeptide chains R H
Amine
Group O
H - N - C - C - OH H
Acid
Group

17. Protein Function

18. Amino Acids
contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a hydrogen atom, all bonded to a central carbon atom
twenty common amino acids grouped into five classes based on side groups
nonpolar amino acids
polar uncharged amino acids
charged amino acids
aromatic amino acids
special-function amino acids

19. Amino Acids
Peptide bond links two amino acids.
A protein is composed of one or more long chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds (polypeptides).

20. NONAROMATIC AROMATIC Nonpolar Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val) Leucine (Leu)
CH3
CH3
CH3 NH
CH3
CH3 CH
CH2 C
CH3 CH
CH2 H C
CH3
CH2
CH2
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O– H O H O H O H O H O H O
Alanine
(Ala)
Valine
(Val)
Leucine
(Leu)
Isoleucine
(Ile)
Phenylalanine
(Phe)
Tryptophan
(Trp)
Polar uncharged O
NH2 OH O C
NH2 OH
CH3 C
CH2 H
CH2 H C OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O– H O H O H O H O H O H O
Glycine
(Gly)
Serine
(Ser)
Threonine
(Thr)
Asparagine
(Asn)
Glutamine
(Gln)
Tyrosine
(Tyr)
Charged
NH2 C
NH2+ NH O O–
CH2
NH3+ C O O– HC
NH+
CH2
CH2
CH2 C CH C N
CH2
CH2 H
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O–
H3N+ C C O– H O H O H O H O H O
Glutamic
acid (Glu)
Aspartic
acid (Asp
Histidine
(His)
Lysine
(Lys)
Arginine
(Arg)

21. Protein Structure
The shape of proteins is extremely important and can determine the function
Water’s tendency to hydrophobically exclude nonpolar molecules literally shoves the nonpolar portions of the protein to the interior
Many shapes
Primary – the specific amino acid sequences
Secondary – formed by hydrogen bonding
Alpha helix – coils
Beta pleated sheet - foldbacks
motifs - folds or creases
supersecondary structure

22. 1 Primary structure 2 Secondary structure 3 MotifsH H O R H H O R H H C C N C C N C C N C C N C C N C H O R H H O R H H O R 2
Secondary
structure
a helix
b pleated sheet 3
Motifs
a turn
a motif
b a b motif

23. Protein Structure
Tertiary - final folded shape of globular protein (3-dimensional shape) based on bonding of side groups
Domains – independent functional units of the protein 100–200 amino acids long - encoded by a specific DNA sequence (exon)
Quaternary - forms when two or more polypeptide chains associate to form a functional protein

24. Tertiary structure Domains Quaternary structure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 4
Tertiary
structure 5
Domains
Domain 1 6
Quaternary
structure
Domain 2
Domain 3

25. Chaperone Proteins
Chaperone proteins are special proteins which help new proteins fold correctly.
Chaperone deficiencies may play a role in facilitating certain diseases.

26. Unfolding Proteins
Denaturation refers to the process of changing a protein’s shape.
usually rendered biologically inactive pH
temperature
Ionic concentration - salt-curing and pickling used to preserve food

27. Nucleic Acids
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Encodes information used to assemble proteins.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Reads DNA-encoded information to direct protein synthesis.

28. Nucleic Acid Structure
Nucleic acids are composed of long polymers of repeating subunits, nucleotides.
five-carbon sugar
Phosphate group
nitrogenous base
Purines double ringed
adenine and guanine
Pyrimidines – single ringed
cytosine, thymine, and uracil

29. 59
Phosphate group
NH2
Adenine
NH2
Cytosine
(both DNA
and RNA) N C C N C P H C N O H C P U R I N E S N C C H P Y R I M D N E S H C C O N N
Phosphodiester
bonds H H O
Guanine O
Thymine
(DNA only) P C O N C C N H C N H H C
H3C C C N
NH2 H C C O N N H H
5-carbon
sugar P O O
Uracil
(RNA only)
Nitrogenous base C H C N H H C N C O P O H OH 39

30. Nucleic Acid Structure
DNA exists as double-stranded molecules.
double helix
complementary base pairing
Chargaff’s rule
hydrogen bonding
RNA exists as a single stand.
contains ribose instead of deoxyribose
contains uracil in place of thymine
                                                                     

31. Structure of DNA