1. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Theories of Personality Chapter 13

2. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 2 Chapter Outline Measuring PersonalityMeasuring Personality Genetic influences on personalityGenetic influences on personality Environmental influences on personalityEnvironmental influences on personality Cultural influences on personalityCultural influences on personality Psychodynamic influences on personalityPsychodynamic influences on personality The inner experience: Humanistic/ExistentialThe inner experience: Humanistic/Existential

3. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 3 Defining Personality and Traits PersonalityPersonality –Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviours, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual throughout life TraitTrait –A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling

4. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 4 Measuring Personality Objective Tests (inventories)Objective Tests (inventories) Standardized questions requiring written responses; they typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves Factor analysis is often used to examine the underlying characteristicsFactor analysis is often used to examine the underlying characteristics

5. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 5 “Big Five” Personality Dimensions The Big Five have emerged as distinct, central personality dimensions in many countries around the worldThe Big Five have emerged as distinct, central personality dimensions in many countries around the world Are stable over a lifetimeAre stable over a lifetime Some argue it is incomplete; other important dimensions (e.g., religiosity) are missingSome argue it is incomplete; other important dimensions (e.g., religiosity) are missing Others (Eysenck) argue for only 3 factorsOthers (Eysenck) argue for only 3 factors

6. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 “Big Five” Personality Dimensions ExtroversionExtroversion AgreeablenessAgreeableness Conscientiousness / DependabilityConscientiousness / Dependability Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability Culture / Intellect / OpennessCulture / Intellect / Openness

7. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 7 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Most widely used personality instrumentMost widely used personality instrument –Now the MMPI - 2 Clinical & Employment settingsClinical & Employment settings Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problemMeasures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem –e.g., extreme suspiciousness Long test ‑ 567 questionsLong test ‑ 567 questions

8. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 8 Characteristics of the MMPI ‑ 2 Has several different scales (multiphasic)Has several different scales (multiphasic) Scales thought to measure different kinds of psychological disordersScales thought to measure different kinds of psychological disorders –e.g., depression Scale scores indicate how you compare with othersScale scores indicate how you compare with others Overall assessment is interpretiveOverall assessment is interpretive –From inspecting profile of different scales

9. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 9 MMPI Score Profile

10. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 10 MMPI Validity Scales Four scales designed to determine whether respondent is presenting self accuratelyFour scales designed to determine whether respondent is presenting self accurately Example: L scale (‘Fake Good’) - Trying too hard to present self in a positive lightExample: L scale (‘Fake Good’) - Trying too hard to present self in a positive light –“I smile at everyone I meet” (T) –“I read every editorial every day” (T)

11. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 11 MMPI Sample Items I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interestingI usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting –Depression Evil people are trying to influence my mindEvil people are trying to influence my mind –Paranoia I seem to hear things that other people can’t hearI seem to hear things that other people can’t hear –Schizophrenia

12. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 12 Consistency over a lifetime

13. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 13 Projective Tests Based on the assumption that the test taker will transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus.Based on the assumption that the test taker will transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus. Examples include the Thematic Apperception Test and the RorschachExamples include the Thematic Apperception Test and the Rorschach

14. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 14 Thematic Apperception Test Person is asked to tell a story about the “hero” in the picturePerson is asked to tell a story about the “hero” in the picture –Another projective test Based on Murray’s personality theoryBased on Murray’s personality theory –People are distinguished by the needs that motivate their behaviour

15. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 15 The Rorschach Inkblot Test Ambiguous stimuliAmbiguous stimuli Person is asked to report what they seePerson is asked to report what they see This type of test is called projectiveThis type of test is called projective –No clear image, so the things you see must be “projected” from inside yourself Sample Rorschach Card

16. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 16 Genetic Influences on Personality Heredity and temperamentHeredity and temperament Heredity and traitsHeredity and traits Evaluating Genetic TheoriesEvaluating Genetic Theories

17. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 17 Genetic Influences on Personality 123 pairs of identical twins and 127 pairs of fraternal twins123 pairs of identical twins and 127 pairs of fraternal twins Measured on “Big Five” personality dimensionsMeasured on “Big Five” personality dimensions Results suggest that personality differences in the population are 40 - 50% genetically determinedResults suggest that personality differences in the population are 40 - 50% genetically determined

18. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 18 Heredity and Temperament TemperamentsTemperaments –Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways –Present in infancy and assumed to be innate –Includes: ReactivityReactivity SoothabilitySoothability Positive and Negative EmotionalityPositive and Negative Emotionality –Temperaments are relatively stable over time

19. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 19 Heredity and Traits HeritabilityHeritability –A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group –Heritability of personality traits is about 50% Within a group of people, about 50 % of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the groupWithin a group of people, about 50 % of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group –Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability

20. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 20 Evaluating Genetic Theories If genetic theories are correct we may not be able to transform our personalities: implications for therapyIf genetic theories are correct we may not be able to transform our personalities: implications for therapy May leave us to focus on living with temperaments we haveMay leave us to focus on living with temperaments we have Removes blame from parentsRemoves blame from parents Be careful not to oversimplify support for genetic influencesBe careful not to oversimplify support for genetic influences

21. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 21 Environmental Influences on Personality The power of parentsThe power of parents The power of peersThe power of peers Situations and circumstancesSituations and circumstances

22. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 22 The Power of Parents The shared environment of the home has little influence on personalityThe shared environment of the home has little influence on personality –The non-shared environment is a more important influence Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all childrenFew parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all children Even when parents try to be consistent in the way they treat their children, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn outEven when parents try to be consistent in the way they treat their children, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out

23. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 23 The Power of Peers Adolescent culture includes different peer groups organized by different interestsAdolescent culture includes different peer groups organized by different interests Peer acceptance is so important to children and adolescents that being bullied, victimized or rejected by peers is far more traumatic than punitive treatment by parentsPeer acceptance is so important to children and adolescents that being bullied, victimized or rejected by peers is far more traumatic than punitive treatment by parents

24. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 24 Situations & Circumstances Reciprocal DeterminismReciprocal Determinism The two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits The two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits

25. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 25 Non-shared Environment Unique aspects of a person’s environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traitsUnique aspects of a person’s environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits

26. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 26 Two-way process of reciprocal determinism shows how the genetic and situational factors are both importantTwo-way process of reciprocal determinism shows how the genetic and situational factors are both important

27. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 27 Cultural Influences on Personality Culture, values and traitsCulture, values and traits Customs in contextCustoms in context Aggressiveness and altruismAggressiveness and altruism

28. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 28 Culture, Values, and Traits CultureCulture –A program of shared rules that govern the behaviour of members of a community or society –A set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of that community

29. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 29 Culture, Values, and Traits Individualistic cultureIndividualistic culture –Cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others Collectivistic cultureCollectivistic culture –Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes

30. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 30 Customs in Context When culture isn’t appropriately considered, people attribute unusual behaviour to personalityWhen culture isn’t appropriately considered, people attribute unusual behaviour to personality TimelinessTimeliness –monochronic cultures time is ordered sequentially, schedules and deadlines values over peopletime is ordered sequentially, schedules and deadlines values over people –polychronic cultures time is ordered horizontally, people valued over schedules and deadlinetime is ordered horizontally, people valued over schedules and deadline

31. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 31 Aggressiveness Considerable cross-cultural evidence suggests that male aggression results more from cultural factors than biological onesConsiderable cross-cultural evidence suggests that male aggression results more from cultural factors than biological ones In cultures in which competition for resources is fierce and survival is difficult, men are “toughened up” and pushed to take risksIn cultures in which competition for resources is fierce and survival is difficult, men are “toughened up” and pushed to take risks

32. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 32 Altruism Culture also strong influence on moral behaviour. Children from the United States were less likely to be altruistic when compared with children from Kenya, India, Mexico, the Philippines and OkinawaCulture also strong influence on moral behaviour. Children from the United States were less likely to be altruistic when compared with children from Kenya, India, Mexico, the Philippines and Okinawa

33. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 33 Psychodynamic Influences on Personality Psychodynamic theories explain behaviour and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individualPsychodynamic theories explain behaviour and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual Freud and PsychoanalysisFreud and Psychoanalysis Other Psychodynamic approachesOther Psychodynamic approaches Evaluating psychodynamic approachesEvaluating psychodynamic approaches

34. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 34 Freud and Psychoanalysis The structure of the personalityThe structure of the personality Intrapsychic – within the mind (psyche)Intrapsychic – within the mind (psyche) Libido – in psychoanalysis, the psychic energy that fuels the life or sexual instincts of the idLibido – in psychoanalysis, the psychic energy that fuels the life or sexual instincts of the id

35. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 35 The Structure of Personality Id: Operates according to the pleasure principleId: Operates according to the pleasure principle –Primitive and unconscious part of personality Ego: Operates according to the reality principleEgo: Operates according to the reality principle –Mediates between id and superego Superego: Moral ideals and conscienceSuperego: Moral ideals and conscience

36. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 36

37. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 37 Defence Mechanisms RepressionRepression ProjectionProjection DisplacementDisplacement Reaction formationReaction formation RegressionRegression DenialDenial

38. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 38 Other Psychodynamic Approaches Jungian TheoryJungian Theory –Collective unconscious The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of human kindThe universal memories, symbols, and experiences of human kind Represented in the archetypes or universal symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories, and dreamsRepresented in the archetypes or universal symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories, and dreams –Two important archetypes are maleness and femaleness, which Jung believed existed in both sexes

39. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 39 Other Psychodynamic Approaches The Object-Relations SchoolThe Object-Relations School –Emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother Emphasized children’s needs for a powerful mother and to be in relationshipsEmphasized children’s needs for a powerful mother and to be in relationships

40. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 40 Three scientific failingsThree scientific failings –Violating the principle of falsifiability –Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients –Basing theories of personality development on retrospective accounts and the fallible memories of patients Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

41. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 41 The Humanistic Approach Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow Carl RodgersCarl Rodgers Rollo MayRollo May Evaluating HumanistsEvaluating Humanists

42. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 42 Abraham Maslow Humanist psychologyHumanist psychology –An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential Peak experiencesPeak experiences –Rare moments of rapture cause by the attainment of excellence or the experience of beauty

43. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 43 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization Physiological Safety Belongingness Esteem

44. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 44 Carl Rogers Unconditional Positive RegardUnconditional Positive Regard –A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is unqualified Conditional Positive RegardConditional Positive Regard –A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is contingent upon one’s behaviour

45. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 45 Self-Discrepancy Theory Self-esteem is defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselvesSelf-esteem is defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves

46. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 46 Rollo May Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety and alienationShared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety and alienation ExistentialismExistentialism –Free will confers on us responsibility for our actions

47. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 47 Evaluating Humanists Hard to operationally define many of the conceptsHard to operationally define many of the concepts Have added balance to the study of personalityHave added balance to the study of personality The approach has encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology”The approach has encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology” The argument that we have the power to choose our own destiny has fostered a new appreciation for resilienceThe argument that we have the power to choose our own destiny has fostered a new appreciation for resilience